
Class -P), 
Book ■ M 



Copyright N°. 



1^15 



COPYRiGHT DEPOSIT 



HISTORY 

OF THE 



CATHOLIC CHURCH 



FOR 

CATHOLIC PAROCHIAL 

AND 

HIGH SCHOOLS 



BY THE 

BROTHERS OF MARY 

(Brother Gustavtts, Author) 



CHAMINADE COLLEGE 
Clayton, Mo. 






^ 



Copyright, 1915, by 

THE BROTHERS OF MARY 

Clayton, Mo. 



WOODWABD & TlERNAN PRINTING Co. 

St. Louis, Mo. 
/ 

OCT 26 1915 
©CI.A416117 









Xvu^) . U1-* 






PREFACE 



The present brief manual of Church History is 
designed to meet the requirements of the seventh and 
eighth grades of the parochial school, or of the first 
and second years of the high school. 

In its scope it embraces the history of the Catholic 
Church from the date of its origin to the present day. 
The author has tried to condense this vast subject 
within moderate limits by omitting details and stories, 
leaving these to be 'supplied by the "References for 
Reading" which follow each chapter. The books, listed 
under their appropriate titles, have been carefully 
selected, and, in many instances, the pages and chap- 
ters of special interest have been indicated, in order 
to facilitate research on the part of both the teacher 
and the pupils. Besides, the list furnishes a suitable 
selection of interesting and useful books which ought 
to be found in every school library. The initial letters 
that follow the titles given refer to the publishers, 
whose addresses in full are added below. 

The attention of the teacher is called to the "Topical 
Outlines" which follow the various chapters (with 
the exception of the supplementary chapters). In the 
"Outlines" the leading topic of each paragraph is given 
under the corresponding number. The topics of the 
entire chapter may be studied, thus furnishing a com- 
prehensive outline, and a subject for oral or written 
recitation. Again, a topic may be assigned to each 
pupil, to be amplified either orally or in writing. 
Teachers will certainly appreciate this feature, realiz- 
ing, particularly, the great educational value of oral 
recitation. 

(5) 



6 PREFACE 

An attempt has -been made to exercise pupils in 
looking up references in connection with their daily 
studies. For this purpose words requiring special 
explanation have been added at the end of each chapter. 
These references arranged in alphabetical order are 
to be found in the "Notes" of the "Appendix". If 
they be made to form a part of the daily recitation, 
it will save the teacher much research and explanation, 
and,, at the same time, will cultivate the "reference- 
habit" on the part of the pupil. 

To cover the two-years' course the present text- 
book may be divided into two parts, according to the 
capacity of the pupils. The Supplementary Chapters 
may be read in the first year and, studied in the second 
year. Chapters from the "References for Reading" 
may be selected, and read aloud, or related by the 
teacher. In the second year a more complete reading 
by the pupils may be required. In the second year of 
the high school individual papers may be assigned on 
the various topics, the notes for which may be taken 
from the corresponding reference books. The period 
set aside for the regular composition exercise may 
occasionally be taken for this preparation. Each paper 
may, when completed, be read before the class and 
discussed or reproduced orally or in writing. At the 
end of each period in Church History, pupils may be 
required to compile a chronological table comprising 
the most important dates. The latter may be taken 
from the text, or from books of reference. 

Feast of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 
June 11, 1915. 

Chamixade College, Claytox, Mo. 



CONTENTS 



FIRST PERIOD 

From the Foundation of the Church to Constantine (313) 
Chapter 

I. Religious Aspect of the World before the Advent 
of the Savior 
II. Apostolic Times 
III. The Primitive Church 
IV- Persecutions 
V- Internal Life of the Church 
Section I. Organization 

II. Discipline and Worship 

III. Early Heresies 

IV. Literature 

A. (Supplementary) Rapid Spread of Christianity 



SECOND PERIOD 

From Constantine to Charlemagne (313-800) 

VI. Spread of Christianity 

Section I. The Church and the Roman 
Emperors 
II. Fall of the Roman Empire 

III. Progress of Religion in the West 

IV. The Eastern Church 
VII. Internal Life of the Church 

Section I. Constitution and Organization 
II. Discipline and Worship 
VIII. The Religious Life 
IX. Heresies and Schisms 

B. (Supplementary) Influence of the Church 

C. (Supplementary) Christian Literature 

(7) 



CONTENTS 

THIRD PERIOD 

From Charlemagne to St. Gregory VII (800-1073) 

Chapter 

X. Christian Society 
XI. Historical View of the Papacy 
XII. Internal Life of the Church 
Section I. Constitution 

II. Discipline and Worship 

XIII. The Schools 

XIV. The Church, the Guardian of Revealed Doctrine 
Section I. The Iconoclasts 

II. The Greek Schism 
D. (Supplementary) Influence of the Church 



FOURTH PERIOD 

From St. Gregory VII to Boniface VIII (1073-1303) 

XV. Influence of the Church 

Section I. The Papacy and the Empire 
II. The Crusades 
XVI. Internal Life of the Church 
Section I. Constitution 

II. Discipline and Worship 
III. Christian Art 
XVII. The Religious Life 
XVIII. The Church, the Guardian of Revealed Doctrine 
Section I. Heresies 

II. The Inquisition 
E. (Supplementary) The Church and Sacred Science 

FIFTH PERIOD 

From Boniface VIII to Leo X (1303-1513) 

XIX. Influence of the Church 

Section I. The Holy See at Avignon 

II. The Great Schism of the West 
XX. Internal Life of the Church 
XXI. The Church, the Guardian of Revealed Doctrine 



CONTENTS 



Chapter 
XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 
XXV. 



SIXTH PERIOD 

From Leo X to Alexander VII (1513-1655) 

Historical View of the Papacy 
Protestantism 

Spread of Protestantism in Europe 
Protestantism in Various Countries 
Section I. Switzerland 
II. France 

III. England 

IV. Scotland and Ireland 
V. Sects of Protestantism 



XXVI. 
XXVII. 



XXVIII. 



The Council of Trent 
Internal Life of the Church 

Section I. Religious Life 

II. Christian Art 

The Church in the Missions 

Section I. In America 

II. In Asia 

III. In Africa 



SEVENTH PERIOD 

From Alexander VII to Pius VI (1655-1799) 



XXIX. 
XXX. 



XXXI. 



Historical View of the Papacy 
The Eighteenth Century 
Section I. Jansenism 

II. Philosophism 
Internal Life of the Church 
Section I. Religious Life 

II. Worship and Art 



EIGHTH PERIOD 

XXXII. The French Revolution 



NINTH PERIOD 

From the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century to the 

Present 
XXXIIL Historical View of the Papacy 
XXXIV. The Church in Europe 
XXXV. The Church in other Lands 
XXXVI. Internal Life of the Church 
XXXVII. Noted Catholic Laymen. 

F. (Supplementary) The Church and Science 

EPILOGUE 



PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS 

IN 

"REFERENCES FOR READING" 

A. P The America Press, New York. 

B. B Benziger Brothers, New York, Chicago and 

Cincinnati. 

B. H B. Herder, St. Louis, Mo. 

C. S. S. P Catholic Summer School Press, New York. 

D. P The Dolphin Press, Philadelphia, Pa. 

F. D. B Frank D. Beattys & Co., New York. 

F. U. P Fordham University Press, New York. 

H. L. K H. L. Kilner, Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. M John Murphy Co., Baltimore, Md. 

L. G Longmans, Green & Co., New York. 

P. J. K P. J. Kennedy & Sons, New York. 

S. K. F Schwartz, Kirwin and Fauss, New York. 



(10) 



FIRST PERIOD 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH 
TO CONSTANTINE (313) 



CHAPTER I 

RELIGIOUS ASPECT OF THE WORLD BEFORE THE ADVENT 
OF THE SAVIOR 

1. Pagan Worship. — During the ages that pre- 
ceded the coming of the Savior, the world at large was 
wrapped in the darkness of Paganism. Some of the 
nations worshipped nature, that is, the stars, the ele- 
ments, the earth, and various animals. They paid 
Divine honors to images and statues. This form of 
religion prevailed among the Chinese in the East, the 
Egyptians in Africa, and the Germanic tribes in the 
West. 

2. Greek and Roman Mythology. — The Greeks and 
the Romans had advanced a step farther. They per- 
sonified the forces of nature. Their gods represented 
nothing more than persons distinguished for their 
natural powers, their passions, or their vices. The 
entire religious system of the Greeks, as well as that of 
the Romans, was clothed in the attractive stories of 
mythology, which were told to the children at home 
and taught in the schools. They were likewise pictured 
upon the walls of their dwellings and of their temples. 

3. Result of Pagan Worship. — The result of the 
various forms of pagan worship was the basest corrup- 
tion and immorality, manifested in idolatry, human 
sacrifice and slavery. In Phoenicia, Syria and Car- 
thage, children were burnt to death to appease the 
wrath of the god Moloch, and among the Romans and 

(11) 



12 RELIGIOUS ASPECT BEFORE CHRIST 

Teutons, old men and captives were drowned in honor 
of the gods. The sacred games of the Romans, origi- 
nally celebrated in honor of the gods, became in the end 
mere bloody shows of brutal strength, in which, for 
the amusement of the people, slaves and captives were 
pitted against each other or against wild beasts. 

4. Attitude of the Pagan Mind. — A number of 
philosophers among the pagans, such as Plato, Seneca, 
Aristotle and others, guided by the light of reason, had 
conceived some correct ideas concerning a Supreme 
Being, and man's higher destiny ; but these men could 
not to any great extent influence the masses of the 
people. However, the better educated class among the 
Romans looked with horror and despair upon the sad 
state of corruption into which society had fallen. In 
fact, most of them had lost all faith in their gods, and 
many longed for a true and vitalizing religion, which 
would free them from their doubts, and teach them real 
virtue and happiness. 

5. The Chosen People. — Among all nations the 
lews, or Israelites, were chosen by Divine Providence 
to preserve the knowledge of the true God. They were 
instructed in the law of God by the patriarchs, by 
Moses, and by the prophets. They often imitated the 
crimes and idolatry of the pagans, but they were as 
i >ften led back to the path of righteousness by trials and 
prodigies. 

6. Influence of the Jews. — At times God brought 
the pagan world into contact with His chosen people. 
After the captivity of Babylon the Jews gradually 
spread throughout the known world ; they were to be 
found in every important city. Though they them- 
selves were despised by the pagans, their religious con- 
victions and their Divine services strongly impressed 
the pagan mind. Many of the heathens became prose- 
lytes, and, embracing the worship of God, they rejected 
their idolatrous practices, and adopted the moral pre- 
cepts and even the ceremonies prescribed by the 
Mosaic Law. 



RELIGIOUS ASPECT BEFORE CHRIST 13 

7. Reaction of Pagan Influence. — In Palestine, 
contact with Paganism gave rise to several sects 
among the Jews. Thus the Sadducees formed the 
priestly aristocracy. They accepted and promoted 
Greek culture in Jerusalem, and rejected the spiritual- 
ity and immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the 
dead, and the existence of the spirit world in general. 
They were free-thinkers in matters of religion, and 
admitted no other guidance than that of reason. The 
Pharisees, a powerful faction evincing strong demo- 
cratic tendencies, were bent upon shielding the Jews 
from the "contamination of the gentiles". They strove 
zealously to enforce the most scrupulous compliance 
with the Law of Moses in its minutest details. The 
Scribes, who belonged to the party of the Pharisees, 
were the learned class. They read and explained the 
text of the Law in the synagogue meetings. The 
Samaritans mingled Judaism with idolatry. They were 
the descendants of those colonists who had been sent 
from various heathen nations into Samaria to replace 
the Jews led into captivity. They intermarried with 
the Jews that still remained in Samaria, and adopted 
their language and many of their religious practices. 

8. Preparation for the Kingdom of Christ. — Dur- 
ing the reign of Augustus, the Roman Empire had 
completed its career of conquest. Its influence ex- 
tended almost to the boundaries of China. Roman 
military roads, ready to be traversed by the Apostles, 
led from the Forum in Rome to Spain and Gaul, to 
the Rhine and the Danube, to Egypt and Arabia. 
Having brought all the civilized and most of the bar- 
barian nations under its sway, Rome generalized the 
two great languages of antiquity, Latin and Greek, 
thereby facilitating the rapid spread of Christ's teach- 
ing. Thus Rome became, in the designs of Providence, 
the instrument for establishing upon the earth that 
universal peace which was to herald the coming of the 
Savior. 

9. Birth and Hidden Life of Christ.— During the 
reign of Caesar Augustus, "when the fulness of time 



14 RELIGIOUS ASPECT BEFORE CHRIST 

was come", Jesus Christ, the long expected Savior, was 
born at Bethlehem of the Virgin Mary. Pursued by 
Herod, King of Judea, who feared Him as a possible 
rival, the Infant Savior was carried by His parents into 
Egypt, where He remained till the death of the king. 
Returning to Nazareth in Galilee, He led there, till His 
thirtieth year, a life of humble submission to Mary, His 
mother, and to St. Joseph, His foster-father. 

Topical Outline 

1. Pagan worship prevailed throughout the world. 

2. Greek and Roman worship was clothed in 
mythology. 

3. Pagan worship resulted in corruption and im- 
morality. 

4. Enlightened pagans were dissatisfied with their 
form of worship. 

5. The Jews preserved the knowledge of the true 
God. 

6. The Jews made proselytes among the pagans. 

7. Contact with Paganism produced sects and divi- 
sions among the Jews. 

8. Providence prepared the way for the coming 
of Christ. 

9. Birth and hidden life of Christ. 

See Notes: Moloch, Teutons, Plato, Aristotle, Seneca. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Paganism: "Pearl of Antioch," by Abbe Bayle (P. J. K.). 

"The Decline of Greece." 
Pagan Religion: "Lectures on the History of Religions," (B. 

H.). Vol. I, China and Egypt. Vol. II, Ancient Greece 

and Imperial Rome. "In the Turkish Camp and other 

Stories." From the German (B. H.). "The Saying of 

the Oracle." 
Dawn of the Christian Era: "After the Ninth Hour," by 

R. Monlaur (B. H.). 
Time of the Messiah: "The Centurion," by A. B. Routhier 

(B. H.). 

"The Ray," by R. Monlaur (B. H.). 



CHAPTER II 

APOSTOLIC TIMES 

10. The Public Life of Jesus.— In His thirtieth 
year Jesus was baptized in the Jordan by John the 
Baptist, and after forty days of fasting and prayer, He 
entered upon His public life. He began to teach His 
heavenly doctrine and to gather disciples about Him. 
Among them He chose twelve whom He called 
Apostles. These He instructed with special care, gave 
them the power to forgive sins and to work miracles in 
His name, and entrusted them with the sublime mis- 
sion to "teach all nations". 

1 1 . Establishment of the Church. — Jesus appointed 
the Apostles the legislators of His Church, and com- 
missioned them to offer the Divine Sacrifice of the 
New Law in commemoration of Him. He promised 
to send them the Holy Spirit who would be with them 
until the end of time. Thus our Divine Savior estab- 
lished His Church, and He assured the unity of His 
work by appointing St. Peter its supreme head upon 
earth. To him He gave the keys of the kingdom of 
heaven, that is, the fulness of spiritual power. 

12. The Work of Redemption. — Having estab- 
lished His Church for the salvation of souls, our Savior 
Jesus Christ had but one desire : to sacrifice Himself 
for the redemption of the world. The priests and the 
ancients of the Jews who, out of hatred, had sworn to 
destroy Him, brought about His apprehension and His 
cruel death upon the cross. In death as well as in life 
our Savior proved His Divine mission by signs and 
miracles. The veil of the Temple was torn asunder 
to show that the old covenant had come to an end, and 
that there was to begin a new era of grace in whose 
blessings all nations were to share. As He had fore- 
told, on the third day He arose gloriously from the 
dead. He appeared frequently to His Apostles and 
disciples, instructing them in the details of their mis- 
CIS) 



16 APOSTOLIC TIMES 

sion, and completing the organization of His Church, 
before ascending to His Heavenly Father on the 
fortieth day after His resurrection. 

13. The Preaching of the Word of God.— At the 
time of our Savior's ascension, His disciples numbered 
about 500 in Galilee, and. including the Apostles, about 
120 in Jerusalem. While the Apostles and disciples 
were united in prayer, awaiting the coming of the Holy 
Spirit, they chose Matthias to fill the place left vacant 
by the traitor Judas. The Holy Ghost, descending 
upon them, filled their souls with heavenly gifts. 
St. Peter at once began the work of bis Apostolic call- 
ing. The result of his first sermon was the conversion 
and baptism of 3000 Jews, most of whom had come 
from afar to Jerusalem in order to celebrate the feast of 
Pentecost. Many of these pilgrims carried the glad 
tidings of the new doctrine to their homes. The 
preaching of the Apostles and the miracles they per- 
formed soon increased the number of the faithful in 
Jerusalem to 5000. These at once separated from the 
Jews and formed, at it were, one great family, in which 
all things were held in common. The more wealthy 
contributed to a general treasury for the support of all. 
Though continuing to take part in the public services 
of the Jews, the newly converted met at stated times 
in private houses for their own Divine services. These 
consisted in prayer, "the breaking of bread", and the 
preaching of the Apostles. 

14. Opposition of the Jewish Priests. — The priests, 
too proud to be instructed by humble fishermen, incited 
the Jewish people against the Apostles. St. Peter and 
St. John were summoned to appear before the San- 
hedrin, the great council of the Jews. They were for- 
bidden to teach in the name of Jesus, but Peter and 
John answered: "If it be just in the sight of God to 
hear you rather than God, judge ye." Fearing the 
resentment of the people, the chief priests and ancients 
merely threatened them and sent them away. At 
another time the Apostles were cast into prison ; but, 



APOSTOLIC TIMES 17 

having been delivered by an angel, they continued to 
preach in the Temple. They were again brought 
before the council, and though Gamaliel, a doctor of 
the law, saved their lives, they were nevertheless 
scourged before being dismissed. 

15. Further Progress of the Divine Teaching. — 

Owing to the active ministry of the deacon Stephen, a 
large number of Jews adopted the doctrine of Christ. 
This brought on a bloody persecution. St. Stephen, 
the Protomartyr, was apprehended and stoned to death. 
The faithful followers of Christ fled from Jerusalem 
and were scattered throughout Samaria, Phoenicia, 
Antioch, and the island of Cyprus ; the Apostles alone 
remained. The Samaritans, whom the Jews despised, 
were eager to accept the new doctrine, and were bap- 
tized in great numbers, principally by the deacon 
Philip. St. Peter and St. John, hearing of this, came 
from Jerusalem to administer the Sacrament of Con- 
firmation, whereupon many received the gift of tongues 
and of miracles — a visible proof that they, too, were 
called to the Church of Christ. 

16. The Gentiles Receive the Gift of Faith.— God 
made use of the very obstinacy and opposition of the 
Jews to hasten the dispersion of the Apostles into the 
various countries of the pagan world. The gates of 
salvation were first thrown open to the gentile Cor- 
nelius, a Roman Centurion of Caesarea. St. Peter, 
instructed by a heavenly vision, received him and his 
whole family into the Church. At Antioch, the capital 
of Syria, there soon arose a flourishing congregation, 
consisting chiefly of converted pagans. Here it was 
that the followers of Christ were first called Christians, 
having been previously known among the Jews as 
Nazarenes. At the Council of Jerusalem (about A. D. 
49), at which St. Peter presided, it was formally 
decreed that the faithful should be exempted from the 
observance of the Mosaic Law, thereby permanently 
settling a matter that had occasioned numerous dis- 
putes among the converted Jews. 



18 APOSTOLIC TIMES 

17. Rome Receives the Faith. — A congregation of 
Christians was founded in Rome during the reign of 
the Emperor Claudius, A. D. 42. In the year 49 the 
Jews were driven from Rome on account of their dis- 
sensions and repeated uprisings. Many of them went 
to Jerusalem, accompanied by Christians of Jewish 
origin. When Nero permitted the Jews to return to the 
Imperial City about the year 56, St. Peter established 
his see at Rome, where he labored during the last years 
of his life, and where he ended his earthly course by 
martyrdom. 

18. The Apostle St. Paul.— St. Paul, previously 
called Saul, and known as a persecutor of the faithful, 
was miraculously converted, and was baptized by one 
of the disciples named Ananias. He at once began to 
preach the doctrine of Christ in the synagogue. After 
a few days he retired to Arabia, where, in solitude and 
seclusion, he prepared himself for his Apostolic mis- 
sion. He was instructed in the sublime mysteries of 
the Faith by Divine inspiration. After more than 
thirty years of travel and of active labor as an Apostle, 
he received the crown of martyrdom at Rome. Tra- 
dition states that St. Paul was beheaded about the 
same time that St. Peter was crucified (67). 

19. St. John the Evangelist. — St. John, to whose 
care the dying Savior had confided His Holy Mother, 
is said to have remained with her at Jerusalem until 
the day of her death. During the reign of Domitian, he 
was apprehended (about the year 95) and thrown into 
a caldron of boiling oil. Having been miraculously 
preserved from all harm, he was banished to the island 
of Patmos, where he wrote the Apocalypse. Upon the 
death of the emperor he went to Ephesus. Here he 
wrote his Gospel and his Epistles, and died at a ripe 
old age about the year 100. 

20. The First Bishop of Jerusalem. — St. James the 
Younger labored principally among the Christians of 
Palestine. He was the first Bishop of Jerusalem, and 



APOSTOLIC TIMES 19 

governed that see until the year 63, when he was 
martyred by the Jews. As to the other Apostles, we 
have no historical accounts of their labors except those 
handed down by local traditions. 

21. The Destruction of Jerusalem. — During the 
reign of Vespasian, the Romans under Titus besieged 
Jerusalem. The Christians, forewarned by a revela- 
tion, fled to the neighboring cities. In the course of 
the siege more than 600,000 Jews perished by famine 
and the sword and 97,000 were sold as slaves. A Roman 
soldier having set fire to the Temple, the entire edifice 
was destroyed. The city fell into the hands of the 
Romans and was leveled to the ground. Henceforth 
the Jews were to have no temple, no priesthood, and no 
country of their own. Thus Christianity was forever 
emancipated from the bonds of Judaism, and was free 
to follow its Divine vocation, as the religion of all 
nations. 

Topical Outline 

10. Jesus prepared His disciples for the preaching 
of the Gospel. 

11. He completed the organization of His Church. 

12. He sacrificed Himself for the redemption of 
the world. 

13. St. Peter preached at Jerusalem and converted 
many Jews. 

14. The Jewish priests opposed the preaching of 
the word of God. 

15. The faithful were persecuted and dispersed, 
and the Samaritans converted. 

16. The Faith was preached to the gentiles. 

17. The Romans received the Faith. 

18. St. Paul after his conversion became an 
Apostle. 

19. St. John labored at Ephesus, where he wrote 
his Gospel and his Epistles. 



20 APOSTOLIC TIMES 

20. St. James, first Bishop of Jerusalem, was mar- 
tyred for the Faith. 

21. Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans. 

See Notes: Pentecost, Sanhedrin, Synagogue, Apoca- 
lypse. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Sanhedrin: "A Day in the Temple," by Rev. A. J. Maas, 

S. J. (B. H.). Ch. VI, "The Sanhedrin." 
Time of Christ: "Pilate's Wife," A Tale of the Time of 

Christ, by R. T. Haywarden (B. B.). 
The First Christians: "Valeria; and other Stories," by Miss 

Sadlier (P. J. K.). 
Martyrs: '"The Lives of the Early Martyrs," by Mrs. Hope 

(P. J. K.). Ch. IV, "St. James the Great." Ch. V, 

"St. James the Less." Ch. VI, "St. Philip and St. 

Matthias." 
St. John: "John the Beloved," by M. T. Kelly (B. H.). 

Ch. IV, "The Cenacle." Ch. VII, "Patmos and the 

Apocalyptic Writings." 

"St. John and the Close of the Apostolic Age," by Abbe 

Fouard (L. G.). 
Conversion of St. Paul: "The Four Gospels" (B. B.). Acts, 

Ch. IX. 

"St. Paul and His Missions." by Abbe Fouard (L. G.). 

Destruction of Jerusalem: "Lucius Flavus," by J. Spillman, 
S. J. (B. H.). Ch. L, "The Burning of the Temple." 
"Tales of the Early Church," by Rev. J. Freeland (B. B.). 
Page 70, "The Siege of Jerusalem." 

St. Stephen: "The Four Gospels" (B. B.). His Martyrdom, 
Acts, Ch. VII. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH 

22. St. Peter, the Head of the Church.— St. Peter, 
appointed by Christ supreme head of the Church, 
exercised this prerogative from the beginning. He 
presided over the assembly of the Apostles and dis- 
ciples when Matthias was chosen in place of the traitor 
Judas, and on the day of Pentecost he preached the 
first public sermon to proclaim the new doctrine. 
His position as the highest authority in the Church 
is clearly shown at the punishment of Ananias and 
Sapphira, at the reception of the gentiles into the 
Church, and at the Council of Jerusalem. The suc- 
cessors of St. Peter in the episcopal see of Rome never 
ceased to exercise the supreme authority. 

23. The Bishops. — In the primitive Church, the 
Apostles reserved to themselves the supreme direction 
of the various communities of Christians. As the 
number of these increased, the Apostles selected some 
of their disciples to represent them in authority. They 
consecrated them by the imposition of hands, and gave 
them power to consecrate others in the same manner. 
To these successors of the Apostles was given the title 
of Bishop, which in Greek signifies "overseer '. Soon 
each of the large congregations was placed under the 
direction of a bishop. He had the threefold power to 
administer the sacraments, to teach, and to govern and 
direct the faithful in all things spiritual. 

24. The Priests. — The priests, ordained by the 
bishop, were his auxiliaries, and labored under his 
immediate direction. They were his counselors, and 
they frequently replaced him in teaching the faithful 
and in offering the Holy Sacrifice. 

(21) 



22 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH 

25. The Deacons. — The deacons, inferior in rank 
to the priests, were charged mainly with the adminis- 
tration of temporal matters. They distributed alms 
among the needy, instructed the catechumens, and 
served at the altar. In the name of the bishop they 
sometimes administered the Sacrament of Baptism and 
distributed Holy Communion to the faithful. 

26. The Clergy. — The bishops, priests and deacons 
constituted the clergy, so named to distinguish them 
from the body of the faithful, who were called the laity. 
The clergy were in part supported by the voluntary 
gifts of the faithful, though many, following the 
example of St. Paul, who was a maker of tents, gained 
a livelihood by manual labor. 

27. Christian Doctrine. — From the beginning, the 
doctrine of the Church was complete. All the dogmas 
of faith existed in substance. Their further develop- 
ment was gradually accomplished through the action 
of the Holy Ghost, who is their author and first cause. 
Furthermore, the general councils and the Doctors of 
the Church were instrumental in defining the dogmas, 
especially when combating the various heresies that 
sprang up in the course of time. 

28. Principal Authors. — The ecclesiastical writers 
of primitive Christianity, who were distinguished for 
the holiness of their lives, their knowledge, and the 
purity of their doctrine, are called Fathers of the 
Church. Those of the first two centuries are styled 
the Apostolic Fathers, among whom St. Ignatius and 
St. Polycarp are specially noted. 

St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, wrote a number of 
admirable letters bearing testimony to the Faith, and 
to the Christian institutions of his time. St. Polycarp, 
Bishop of Smyrna, was a disciple of St. John. In one 
of his letters still extant, he instructs the Philippians 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH 23 

regarding Sacred Tradition, calling it the rule of faith 
and the interpreter of the Scriptures. 

29. Heresies of the First Century. — Our Savior 
had plainly foretold that His Church would be dis- 
turbed by heretics and false teachers. This prediction 
was verified from the beginning. The Gospel of 
St. John, and the Epistles of St. Paul and of other 
Apostles, contain refutations of errors which the false 
doctors and teachers of their time tried to impose upon 
the faithful. One of these heretics was Simon Magus, 
a native of Samaria. He wished at one time to buy 
from the Apostles the power to impart the Holy 
Ghost, but St. Peter rebuked him, saying : "Keep thy 
money to thyself, to perish with thee, because thou 
hast thought that the gift of God may be purchased 
with money." Instead of profiting by the rebuke, 
Simon became the enemy of the Apostle, and began to 
teach doctrines opposed to the truths of Christianity. 
As to morals, he taught openly that there was no 
difference between good and evil. His followers 
accordingly led lives of the most revolting profligacy. 
Other sects appeared at the same time, some emanating 
from Judaism, others from Paganism. 

Topical Outline 

22. St. Peter was the supreme head of the Church. 

23. The Apostles consecrated bishops to be their 
successors. 

24. The priests represented the bishops. 

25. The deacons administered temporal matters. 

26. The clergy were supported mainly by the laity. 

27. The Church never taught new doctrines. 

28. St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp are classed 
among the Apostolic Fathers. 

29. Simon Magus was one of the first heretics. 
See Notes: Gentiles, catechumens, dogma. 



24 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

St. Peter: "His Name and His Office," by T. W. Allies 

(B. B.). Ch. VI, "Testimony of St. Paul to St. Peter's 

Primacy." 

"The Four Gospels" (B. B.). Acts VIII, 18. 

"Saint Peter and the First Years of Christianity," by 

Abbe Fouard (L. G.). 
Tradition: "The Tradition of Scripture: Its Origin, Author- 
ity and Interpretation," by the Very Rev. W. Barry, 

D. D. (L. G.). 
First Century: "The Government of the Church in the First 

Century;" An Essay on the Beginnings of the Christian 

Ministry. By Rev. W. Moran (B. B.). 
Primitive Church: "Lectures on the History of Religions" 

(B. H.). Vol. Ill, "The Hebrew Bible;" "The Greek 

Testament;" "The Early Church." 

"Callista," a Sketch of the Third Century, by Cardinal 

Newman (P. J. K.). 
St. Polycarp: "St. Justin. Martyr." by Mrs. Charles Martin 

(B. B.). Page 87, "St. Polycarp." 
Simon Magus: (Simon the Magician) "Pearl of Antioch," 

by Abbe Bayle (P. J. K.). Ch. X, "The Thaumaturgus 

and the Magician." 



CHAPTER IV 

PERSECUTIONS 

30. Christ Persecuted in His Church.— The follow- 
ing words of our Divine Savior contain the explanation 
of the whole mystery of persecution : "If the world hate 
you, know you that it hath hated me before you. If 
they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you. 
Father, the hour is come, glorify Thy Son, that Thy 
Son may glorify Thee. . . . Holy Father, keep them 
in Thy name, whom Thou hast given me : that they 
may be one, as we also are one. I in them, and Thou 
in me. . . . And I am glorified in them." Thus 
forewarned, the Church knew full well that it was not 
her leaders nor her members that the world persecuted 
and would continue to persecute to the end of time, 
but rather that it was Christ Himself who was the 
object of the world's malice and hatred. "I in them," 
means Christ in His Church. Although gloriously 
reigning in heaven, Christ was and still is living over 
again, in His Church, His life of martyrdom. 

31. Jewish Persecution. — The first persecution 
against the Church was that of the Jews. They, who 
delivered the Divine Master to be crucified, now 
planned the destruction of His disciples. They forbade 
them to preach, had them imprisoned and scourged, 
hunted them down in every town and village, and 
brought them in chains to Jerusalem. St. Stephen was 
stoned to death, and St. James the Elder was put to the 
sword ; while St. Peter, the Head of the Church, was 
thrown into prison. But soon the day of retribution 
dawned, and the prophecies of Christ were fulfilled in 
the dreadful destruction of Jerusalem. Thus God 
punished the first persecutors of the Church. 

32. Pagan Persecutors. — The next persecutions 
were those ordered by the pagan emperors of Rome. 
During three centuries, known as the "age of martyr- 
dom," the faithful followers of Christ sealed, with 

(25) 



26 PERSECUTIONS 

their life's blood, the eternal truth of His Divine doc- 
trine. Ten emperors are especially mentioned as the 
chief persecutors of the Christians. They are : Nero, 
who reigned from the year 54 to 68 ; Domitian, from 
81 to 96; Trajan, from 98 to 117; Marcus Aurelius, 
from 161 to 180; Septimius Severus, from 193 to 211; 
Maximin of Thrace, from 235 to 238 ; Decius, from 
249 to 251; Valerian, from 253 to 260; Aurelian, from 
270 to 275; Diocletian, from 284 to 305. 

33. Nero. — Nero, the first named among the perse- 
cutors, was noted for his great cruelty and the shameful 
wickedness of his life. In 64, a great fire destroyed 
ten of the fourteen districts into which Rome was 
divided. Public opinion suspected that this destruc- 
tion was the work of Nero, whose ambition it was to 
build a new and more beautiful city as a monument 
to his fame. To cast the odium of this criminal deed 
upon the hated sect of the Christians seemed to him 
the most clever evasion. At the same time he sought 
to gain the favor of the populace by offering them 
spectacular amusements. He accordingly persecuted 
the Christians. Some of them were enclosed in the 
skins of wild animals to be torn to pieces by dogs. 
Others were crucified, or wrapped in pitch and burned 
to serve as torches for the illumination of the public 
games at night. St. Peter and St. Paul suffered mar- 
tyrdom during this period. 

34. Domitian. — During the last years of Domitian's 
reign, the Christians, refusing to honor the gods, were 
persecuted on the plea of atheism. The consul 
Flavius Clemens, cousin of the emperor, was 
beheaded, and St. John, the Beloved Disciple, was 
banished. During the same period St. Andrew was 
crucified in Achaia. Thus we see that the edicts of 
persecution caused the shedding of Christian blood not 
only at Rome but also in other provinces of the empire. 



PERSECUTIONS 27 

35. Trajan. — At the beginning of the second cen- 
tury, Trajan issued an edict extending the law against 
forbidden societies to the Christians, because they held 
their meetings in secret. Pliny the Younger, who, as 
governor of Bithynia, had been persecuting the 
Christians in that province, reported to the emperor 
that the number of Christians was increasing rapidly, 
and that the temples of the gods were deserted. In 
answer to his inquiries as to the manner of proceeding 
against the Christians, Trajan sent him the incon- 
sistent reply that they were not to be sought out ; but 
that, if they were accused, the very name of Christian 
would suffice to sanction their persecution and death. 
Among the distinguished martyrs of this period was 
St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch. He was brought to 
Rome to be devoured by wild beasts. Another was the 
Bishop of Jerusalem, St. Simeon, who, at the venerable 
age of 120 years, shed his blood for Christ. 

36. Marcus Aurelius. — Owing to several disastrous 
wars and to a ravaging pestilence, the popular rage was 
increased against the Christians, who were held respon- 
sible for these calamities because they refused to honor 
the gods. Thus it came to pass that the reign of 
Aurelius was marked by great cruelties perpetrated 
against the faithful followers of Christ. St. Polycarp, 
Bishop of Smyrna, was burnt to death by order of the 
proconsul of Asia. St. Justin was martyred at Rome. 
At Lyons St. Pothinus and a large number of his flock 
obtained the crown of martyrdom. 

37. Septimius Severus. — During the reign of 
Severus, at the beginning of the third century, the 
wonderful growth of the Church filled the various 
rulers with apprehension, and the persecutions began 
to assume a universal aspect. At Lyons the bishop, 
St. Irenaeus, and several thousand Christians, gave 
glory to God by their heroic martyrdom. The account 
of the martyrdom of Saints Perpetua and Felicitas and 
their companions at Carthage is a glorious testimony of 
the courage and constancy of the early Christians. 



28 PERSECUTIONS 

38. Maximin of Thrace. — After the death of 
Severus (211), the Church enjoyed a period of rest 
from active persecution. In 235, Maximin, who had 
murdered his predecessor, planned to destroy Christi- 
anity by issuing an edict against all the bishops of the 
Church ; but his reign was of short duration. At this 
time, however, much Christian blood was shed in 
Asia Minor, where destructive earthquakes aroused the 
popular rage against the Christians. 

39. Decius. — Excepting the short persecution 
under Maximin, the Church had been blessed with 
nearly forty years of tranquillity, during which she had 
spread with wonderful rapidity; but the storm of perse- 
cution was soon to burst anew upon the Christians. 
Decius, aware of the fact that the vast Roman Empire 
was rapidly falling into decay, determined to re-estab- 
lish its former splendor by one supreme effort. To 
attain this end he deemed it necessary to bring the 
Christians back to the national religion, the worship 
of the gods. Those who refused were mercilessly put 
to death. Although this persecution lasted but one 
year, there were many who denied the Faith. On the 
other hand, great was the number of heroic Christians 
who suffered and died for Christ and His holy religion. 
Among these were Pope St. Fabian, St. Alexander, 
Bishop of Jerusalem, St. Agatha of Sicily, and St. 
Apollonia of Alexandria. 

40. Valerian.— During the early part of Valerian's 
reign, the Christians were not molested. In 258, how- 
ever, this emperor issued an edict of persecution 
against the clergy and the Christian nobility, confiscat- 
ing their property in order to replenish the public 
treasury. The Popes St. Stephen and St. Sixtus III, 
and the deacon St. Lawrence were martyred at Rome. 

41. Diocletian. — With the view of upholding and 
strengthening the Roman Empire, Diocletian made 
Maximian the ruler of the West with the title of 
Augustus, but he himself remained the supreme head 
of the State as Emperor of the East. He also appointed 



PERSECUTIONS 29 

two Caesars with the right of succession to the imperial 
throne. These were Galerius in the East and Constan- 
tius in the West. About the year 303, at the instiga- 
tion of Galerius, Diocletian inaugurated the fiercest 
of all the persecutions, and shed streams of Christian 
blood. Among the martyrs were the Theban Legion 
with their general St. Maurice in Switzerland; and at 
Rome St. Sebastian, captain of the imperial guard, 
St. Agnes, and the Popes St. Marcellus and St. Mar- 
cellinus. 

42. The Edict of Milan. — Diocletian and Maximian 
resigned in 305, and the imperial power devolved upon 
Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. In the following 
year the latter was succeeded by his son Constantine, 
who was favorable to the Christians. Galerius, how- 
ever, continued the persecution until 311, when he was 
stricken with a loathsome disease. He then issued an 
edict of toleration, in the hope of being relieved of his 
terrible sufferings, but he soon died a miserable death. 
In 313 Licinius, the Emperor of the East, and Constan- 
tine, issued at Milan the famous joint edict of toler- 
ance, whereby freedom in the exercise of religion was 
granted to Christians and to all others. Besides, it 
ordered the restitution of churches and of all other 
ecclesiastical property that had been confiscated from 
the Christians during the persecutions. 

43. The Catacombs. — The oldest Christian ceme- 
teries of Rome, called Catacombs, date back to Apos- 
tolic times. They are subterranean excavations, con- 
sisting of a net-work of intersecting galleries extending 
in various directions, outside the walls of the city. 
The sides of the galleries are lined with tiers of tombs, 
mostly rectangular in shape ; some are arched and 
vaulted. Into these tombs the bodies of the dead were 
deposited after being wrapped in linen winding sheets. 
During the days of persecution, the Catacombs were 
the sole burial places of the Christians. At times they 
likewise served as meeting places for the celebration 
of the Eucharistic mysteries. On this account some 



30 PERSECUTIONS 

of the galleries were widened, and chapels were exca- 
vated, which were decorated with engravings, monu- 
ments and mural paintings or mosaics. In these 
subterranean sanctuaries, the clergy and the faithful 
gathered to commemorate the anniversaries of the 
departed, and to celebrate the feasts of the holy 
martyrs. 

The Roman Catacombs furnish most valuable infor- 
mation regarding the history of the primitive Church. 
Their monuments, paintings, sculptures and inscrip- 
tions constitute the most precious archives of her 
history during the first three centuries of her existence. 
They illustrate the life and customs of the first Chris- 
tians and the teachings of the early Church ; they give 
us a truthful account of the sufferings and death of 
the martyrs; and, above all, they furnish ample proof 
of the identity of their faith with our own. 

44. The Number of Martyrs. — It is impossible to 
determine, even approximately, the great number of 
Christians who suffered and died for the Faith. 
Eusebius of Caesarea, speaking of the martyrs of the 
last persecution, says : "Those who bore witness to 
Christ are numbered by thousands." St. Cyprian writes 
that "the blood of the martyrs flowed in torrent" ; 
and this life-blood of the martyrs, according to the 
memorable words of Tertullian, "was the seed of Chris- 
tians". The grace of God, which visibly sustained the 
heroic constancy of the martyrs amid the most excruci- 
ating torments, likewise aroused the enthusiasm of the 
faithful Christians. It led back to penance the timid 
apostates, and inspired the fanatical pagans with 
respect and admiration for the sublime religion of 
Jesus Christ. Thus God, Who founded the Church, 
sustained her in her infancy, and thus shall He ever 
protect her through all the ages, according to the 
promise of Jesus Christ: "I am with you at all times, 
even to the consummation of the world." 



PERSECUTIONS 31 

45. Martyrdom: Its Meaning to the Church. — 

The "age of martyrdom" was a part of God's eternal 
plan for the establishment of His Church. Persecution 
and martyrdom produced the very opposite effect to 
that intended by the enemies of the cross. Far from 
destroying the New Law, which was to regenerate the 
world in Christ, the combined powers of earth con- 
fessed themselves conquered by the heroic patience and 
courage of the martyrs, and bowed their heads in 
humble submission to the triumphant Cross of the 
Savior. 

Topical Outline 

30. Christ Himself is the real object of persecution. 

31. The Jews were the first persecutors. 

32. The pagan emperors continued the persecu- 
tions. 

33. Nero amused the people by torturing the 
Christians. 

34. Domitian accused the Christians of atheism. 

35. Trajan considered them a secret society and 
therefore a menace to the State. 

36. Marcus Aurelius yielded to the public rage. 

37. Septimius Severus was apprehensive of the 
Church's growth. 

38. Maximin of Thrace issued an edict against 
the bishops. 

39. Decius tried to re-establish the national 
religion. 

40. Valerian attacked the clergy and the nobility. 

41. Diocletian began the last general persecution. 

42. Constantine granted liberty of conscience. 

43. The Catacombs tell us the history of the 
martyrs. 

44. The number of martyrs cannot be accurately 
determined. 

45. Martyrdom leads to the triumph of the Cross. 
See Notes: Atheism, proconsul, mosaics. 



32 PERSECUTIONS 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Early Church: "The Victims of the Mamertine," Scenes 
from the Early Church, by Rev. A. J. O'Reilly (P. J. K.). 
Ch. Ill, "The Character of Nero;" Ch. IV, "The Cata- 
combs;" Ch. VII, "Last Hours of St. Peter and Martyr- 
dom of St. Paul." 

Persecutions: "The Light of His Countenance," by J. Harte 
(B. B.). Ch. XII, "Hunting Prey." 

"After the Ninth Hour," by R. Monlaur (B. H.). Ch. 
XIII, "Caligula." 

Nero: "Cineas, or Rome under Nero," by J. M. Yillefranche 
(P. J. K.). 

Domitian: "In Quest of Truth," Glimpses of Roman Scenes, 
by Robert Muenchgesang (B. H.). Ch. Ill, "Domitian." 
Ch. VII, "In the Catacombs." 

Diocletian: "Furius," a Tale of the Third Century, by M. A. 
Quenton (P. J. K.). 

Martyrs: "Victories of the Martyrs," by St. Alphonsus de 
Ligouri (B. B.). 

"Lives of the Early Martyrs,'* by Mrs. Hope (P. J. K.). 
"The Martyrs," by Chateaubriand (P. J. K.j. Persecu- 
tions of Diocletian and Galerius. 

"Palms," A Tale of a Martyr under Valerian, by Anna 
Hanson Dorsey (J. M.). 

"The Martvrs of the Coliseum," by Rev. A. J. O'Reilly 
(P. J. K.). 

"Flora: the Roman Martyr" (B. B.). Ch. Ill, "Old 
Roman Customs." 
"In Holiest Troth," by Mother M. Fidelis (B. B.). 

Catacombs: "Fabiola," or The Church of the Catacombs, 
by Cardinal Wiseman (P. J. K.). Part II, Chs. U, III 
and IV, "The Cemeteries." 

"The Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand (J. Mj. 
Part IV, Bk. I, Chs. VI, VII and VIII. 
"A Visit to the Roman Catacombs," by Rev. J. S. North- 
cote (B. B.). 

Martyrs of Carthage: "Fabiola's Sisters," A Tale of Chris- 
tian Heroines Martyred at Carthage, by A. Clarke (B. B.). 



CHAPTER V 

INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

I. Organization 

46. Primacy of the Pope. — From the days of 
St. Peter, the Church of Rome was held in the highest 
esteem by all the congregations of Christendom. The 
popes, that is, the bishops of Rome, were universally 
honored and revered. They were consulted by all the 
churches of the empire. They rendered' final decisions 
concerning controverted questions, and determined the 
lists or canons of the inspired books. Even heretical 
teachers went to Rome to seek the approval of the 
popes for their erroneous doctrines. 

47. Episcopal Supremacy. — In the various cities, 
the churches had at their head a bishop who was 
assisted by priests and deacons. The bishop presided 
at the public prayers and at the teaching of religion. 
All questions of doctrine, of liturgy, of penance and of 
reconciliation were decided by him. He likewise 
authoritatively determined upon the admission of can- 
didates to holy orders, and decided which widows and 
consecrated virgins were to be enrolled among the 
deaconesses. 

48. Minor Orders. — The synod of Neocaesarea 
determined the number of deacons in each church to be 
seven. However, there were several minor orders 
which materially relieved the deacons of many lesser 
functions. Thus there were subdeacons, acolytes, 
exorcists, lectors and porters. 

49. Parishes, Dioceses, Metropolitan Sees. — At 

the close of the third century, the bishops began to 
place priests in charge of the ever-increasing number 
of churches in the smaller towns. Thus the parish 
originated. The diocese was formed by uniting several 
parishes under the jurisdiction of one bishop. As the 
Church expanded, new dioceses were formed, and the 

(33) 



34 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

original one, which, as a rule, was established either in 
or near the metropolis of the country, was called the 
metropolitan see. 

50. Provincial Councils. — To insure the unity and 
to facilitate the co-operation of these various diocesan 
groups, provincial councils were held from time to time 
under the presidency of their respective metropolitan 
bishops. In these councils were discussed questions 
relating to the celebration of Easter and to the baptism 
of heretics, and, in general, all topics pertaining to 
Christian practices and to ecclesiastical discipline. 

II. Discipline and Worship 

51. The Sacraments. — In Apostolic times those 
who confessed the Divinity of Jesus Christ were bap- 
tized without delay. From the beginning of the 
second century, however, adults who desired to 
receive baptism were first instructed in the Christian 
doctrine. During the time of this preparation, which 
often lasted two years, they were known as cate- 
chumens. The baptism of catechumens was reserved 
to bishops, who administered the sacrament with great 
solemnity on Holy Saturday and on the eve of Pente- 
cost. Baptism was ordinarily conferred by a triple 
immersion ; the sick and infirm, however, were often 
baptized by infusion or aspersion. The Sacraments of 
Confirmation and Holy Eucharist were then admin- 
istered to the newly baptized. 

The sick received the Sacrament of Extreme Unc- 
tion as prescribed by the Apostle St. James in the 
fifth chapter of his Epistle. The Sacrament of Holy 
Orders, with its different degrees of deacon, priest, and 
bishop, was conferred by the bishop. Matrimony, 
which St. Paul designates "a great sacrament in Christ 
and in the Church", was solemnized during the Holy 
Sacrifice. 

52. Penitential Discipline. — During this period, the 
faithful began to fast during Lent, breaking their fast 
only after vespers. This constituted the common or 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 35 

general penance. For the remission of sins, however, 
the Church from the earliest times required the private 
confession of sin. Public confession was not of obliga- 
tion except for certain grave and notorious crimes. 

53. Liturgical Discipline. — The celebration of 
Holy Mass was the principal act of Christian worship. 
At first it took place in the evening and was followed 
by a fraternal repast. Later on Holy Mass was cele- 
brated in the morning, and the faithful received Holy 
Communion fasting. 

The Divine service was divided into two parts : the 
Mass of the Catechumens, comprising the singing of 
psalms, the reading of the Scriptures by the reader or 
the deacon, and the sermon or instruction given by the 
bishop; and the Mass of the Faithful, which consisted 
in the celebration of the Divine Mysteries. The bishop 
consecrated the bread and the wine, being assisted at 
the altar by the priests and the other members of the 
clergy. The faithful received Holy Communion under 
both forms as often as they attended Holy Mass, that 
is, daily. 

The vestments that the officiating clergy used exclu- 
sively at the Holy Sacrifice were similar in form to the 
dress ordinarily worn at that period ; but the material 
was of a better and more costly grade. With the excep- 
tion of certain parts chanted by the cantor or the 
clergy, the faithful sang the psalms and the sacred 
hymns. The sign of the cross, the use of holy water, 
and the veneration of the saints and their images were 
common practices of devotion among the primitive 
Christians. 

III. Early Heresies 

54. Their Nature and Refutation. — Our Savior had 
foretold that His Church would always be persecuted. 
External persecution had not yet ceased, when deadly 
heresies arose from within. The devil, unable to crush 
the Church, aimed at corrupting her Faith, and break- 
ing, up her unity. There had, in fact, been heresies 
from the beginning; such as those of the Ebionites and 



36 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

Cerinthians, the Simonians and the Nicolaites. After 
these the Gnostics spread their dangerous teachings. 
They claimed that matter was the source of all evil, 
and that to purify human nature, contaminated by 
contact with matter, Christ came upon earth, assum- 
ing an apparent body incapable of suffering and death. 

Besides Gnosticism, other heresies sprang up. 
Thus Montanus taught doctrines opposed to the mild- 
ness and tenderness of the Gospel. The eloquent and 
intrepid Tertullian was perverted by this heresy. 
Mani, the founder of the Manichaeans, broached the 
impious doctrine that there were two eternal principles, 
one supremely good, and one thoroughly evil. 

These various errors were combated and refuted 
by the Apostles St. John, St. Paul and St. Jude, by 
the first disciples of the Apostles, and by the earliest 
Fathers of the Church, all of whom kept special watch 
lest the true teachings of the Church should be in 
the least degree changed or tainted by these absurd 
opinions. 

IV. Literature 

55. Christian Apologists. — The triumph of the 
Church was as signal in the field of literature as in 
the amphitheatre. In the second and third centuries, 
learned Christian men addressed writings to the 
emperors, proving the falsehood of the accusations 
made against Christianity. They answered the differ- 
ent charges brought against the followers of Christ 
by referring to the innocence of their lives, their 
observance of the Roman laws and customs, and their 
payment of the taxes imposed by the emperors. These 
writers are known as Apologists. 

56. St. Justin. — The earliest two apologies that 
have reached us are those of St. Justin. He prefixed 
his name to these works, and addressed them to the 
Emperor Antoninus and his two sons, about the year 
148. These apologies are valuable, not only as a 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 37 

defense of religion, but as a record of many points of 
Faith, and of early Christian practices. St. Justin was 
surnamed "The Philosopher," because he had passed 
many years in the schools of pagan philosophy, seek- 
ing in vain for that truth which he finally discovered 
in the Christian Church. He wrote several books on 
religion, and at length sealed his testimony with his 
blood. He was beheaded at Rome about the year 166. 

57. St. Irenaeus. — St. Irenaeus of Asia Minor, a 
disciple of St. Polycarp, came to Gaul about 160. He 
helped to found the Church of Lyons, and became its 
second bishop. In his writings he was a most formid- 
able enemy of Gnosticism. In his famous "Treatise 
Against Heresies" he develops most remarkably the 
doctrine of the characteristics of the Church of Jesus 
Christ, and the importance and great value of Christian 
Tradition. He is the first theologian of the infallibility 
of the Church. He died for the Faith in the year 202. 

58. Clement of Alexandria. — Clement was a priest 
and a teacher in the renowned Christian academy 
at Alexandria. The pagans themselves praised his 
wonderful knowledge and took pleasure in attending 
his lectures. He converted many to Christianity by 
contrasting the sublimity of the Christian doctrine 
with the infamous practices of Paganism. 

59. Tertullian. — Tertullian lived at Carthage in 
Africa. First a lawyer and afterwards ordained priest, 
he was a man of great eloquence and ability, and of 
varied knowledge. He defended Christianity with 
talent and energy against the attacks of pagans, Jews 
and heretics. Unhappily, for want of true humility, 
he fell into errors. He died about the year 220. 

60. Origen. — Origen, the successor of Clement in 
the professor's chair at Alexandria, won for himself 
immortal fame by the great number of his writings. 
He was remarkable for his ardent zeal for Christian 
truth and for his great fund of knowledge. He died 



38 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CFIURCH 

from the effects of imprisonment and torture under the 
Emperor Decius in the year 249. 

61. St. Cyprian. — St. Cyprian was bishop of Carth- 
age. He won the crown of martyrdom during the 
persecution of Valerian (258). In his work entitled 
"The Unity of the Church," he compares the Church 
to the seamless gown of Christ. Moreover, he says : 
"Out of the Church there is no salvation; he cannot 
call God his father, who does not recognize the Church 
as his mother." 

Topical Outline 
I 

46. The Pope of Rome was always the primate 
of the Church. 

47. The bishops were the heads of the dioceses. 

48. The minor orders supplemented the functions 
of the deacons. 

49. The parishes were grouped into dioceses, 
which were subject to the metropolitan see. 

50. The provincial councils decided all important 
questions. 

II 

51. The sacraments were administered by the 
clergy. 

52. The Lenten fast constituted the general 
penance. 

53. At Mass the bishop consecrated, and the people 
received Holy Communion. 

Ill 

54. The Church refuted heresy from the beginning, 

IV 

55. The primitive Church had its Apologists. 

56. The earliest apologies still extant are those 
of St. lustin. 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 39 

57. St. Irenaeus wrote the famous ''Treatise 
Against Heresies." 

58. Clement of Alexandria, gifted with wonderful 
knowledge, converted many. 

59. Tertullian was an eloquent defender of Chris- 
tianity. 

60. Origen defended Christian truth by numerous 
writings. 

61. St. Cyprian wrote "The Unity of the Church." 

See Notes: Liturgy, Vespers, Ebionites, Cerinthians, 
Simonians, Nicolaites. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

The Hierarchy: "The Genius of Christianity," by Chateau- 
briand (J. M.). Part IV, Bk. Ill, Ch. II. 
"Christ in His Church," by Rev. Richard Brennan (B. B.). 
Ch. V, "The History of the Hierarchy." 

Costumes of the Clergy: "The Genius of Christianity," Part 
IV, Bk. I, Ch. II. 

Ceremonies and Prayers of the Mass: "The Genius of Chris- 
tianity," Part IV, Bk. I, Ch. VI. 

Christian Rites: "The Victims of the Mamertine," Scenes 
from the Early Church, by Rev. A. J. O'Reilly (P. J. K.). 
Ch. VI, Sec. V, "Origin of the Minor Christian Rites." 

Apologists: "St. Justin Martyr," by Mrs. Charles Martin 
(B. B.) Pages 43 and 96, "Apologies." 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER A 

RAPID SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

62. Its Causes. — During the first three centuries, 
the Christian religion spread with wonderful rapidity 
in Europe, Asia and Africa. This remarkable exten- 
sion of the Kingdom of God upon earth was due to 
various causes. Its external causes have already been 
referred to ; namely, the skepticism of the higher 
classes of society towards mythology, and their yearn- 
ing for a religion that would satisfy the needs of their 
minds and hearts; the union under the Roman scepter 
of all the civilized nations bordering on the Mediter- 
ranean Sea; and the general use among them of the 
Greek language, whereby universal peace, constant 
friendly intercourse, and the development of com- 
merce were fostered. The supreme and final cause, 
however, lay in the invincible power of Christian 
truth and the exalted purity of Christian doctrine, 
exemplified by the piety and the holiness of the first 

^Christians, by their indomitable patience in sufferings 
and persecutions, and by the heroic courage displayed 
in their martyrdom, along with the astounding miracles 
which Almighty God wrought in their favor. 

63. The Obstacles. — The pagans, in general, de- 
spised the Christians. Besides, they had a number 
of gods whose worship was sanctioned by the decrees 
of the Roman Senate, whereas the Christian religion 
held that the gods of Rome were false, and that the 
Almighty was the only true God, whom all must 
worship. 

The Christians were accused of horrid crimes, 
perpetrated at their secret nightly meetings, and were 
decried as the enemies of the nation, whose destruction 
they were secretly planning. They were designated 
as atheists for refusing to worship the gods. The 
pagan priests, the philosophers and even the Jews 
labored unceasingly to arouse the hatred of the people 
(40) 



RAPID SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 41 

against the Christians. All public calamities, such as 
floods, epidemics, earthquakes and the like, were laid 
to the charge of the Christians, and were said to be 
sent by the gods as a punishment for their "impiety". 
The Roman emperors persecuted the Christians 
and sought to destroy the "hated Sect" not only for 
the purpose of satisfying the public rage, but also 
because the Christians refused to honor them as gods. 
They were therefore proscribed as a menace to the 
welfare of the empire. 

64. The Fact. — The universal establishment of the 
Church of God in the midst of a pagan world is an 
incontestable fact, and one of the greatest proofs of 
its Divine origin. 

In the second century, St. Justin affirmed : "There 
is no people, neither among the barbarians nor the 
Greeks, nor any other tribe, where prayers and thanks- 
givings are not offered to God in the name of Christ 
crucified." 

At the beginning of the third century Tertullian, 
addressing the magistrates of the empire, said : "We 
are but of yesterday, and already we fill your cities, 
your islands, your castles, your councils, and your 
camps, the Senate and the royal palace ; we leave you 
naught but your temples. If we were to withdraw 
from the empire, you would shudder at the view of 
your solitude." 

65. The Divine Origin of the Church. — It pleased 
God to show that the Church is the work of His hands, 
by establishing it despite all obstacles. The new 
religion humbled human reason by the depths of its 
mysteries, and thwarted human passions by the strict- 
ness of its laws. If we consider the state of those to 
whom it was preached, the position of its preachers, 
the claims made by men of low condition on a genera- 
tion so proud and disdainful and so corrupted, we feel 
that, had "this work been of men", it must have come 
to naught. On the wreck of the older civilization 
arose a new society, the foundations of which were 



42 RAPID SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

laid in martyrdom during three hundred years of 
almost continual persecution. The acts of the martyrs 
furnish the proof that the religion for which men 
suffered and died is a Divine religion, and that men 
did not build what man was powerless to overthrow. 
The Church subsisted then, as she has subsisted ever 
since, without earthly support, notwithstanding all 
human opposition ; and having thus survived the over- 
throw of all her enemies, and being still strong, 
unchanged, and unchangeable, she can have none but 
God as her Author. 

Suggestion: It may prove a profitable exercise to let 
pupils write the topical outline of the chapter. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Spread of Christianity: ''Christ in His Church," by Rev. 
Richard Brennan (B. B.). Ch. X, "The Triumph and 
Glory of the Catholic Church." 

"History of the Catholic Church," by Dr. H. Brueck. 
Ch. I, Sec. 10, "Spread of Christianity in the First Three 
Centuries." Sec. 11, "Causes of the Rapid Spread of 
Christianity." 



SECOND PERIOD 

FROM CONSTANTINE TO CHARLEMAGNE 
(313-800) 



CHAPTER VI 

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

I. The Church and the Roman Emperors 

66. Constantine the Great. — Amid the fiercest and 
most general persecution, God decreed the triumph 
of His Church over the powers of the world. By the 
Edict of Milan, Christianity at last secured legal recog- 
nition in the Roman Empire. In consequence of this 
edict the Church enjoyed all the political rights and 
privileges which the pagan religion had previously 
possessed. Thus Constantine granted to the clergy 
immunity from all public services, the right to accept 
legacies, to celebrate the Sunday, and to grant liberty 
to slaves in the churches (right of sanctuary). 

After his memorable victory over Licinius, Con- 
stantine became the sole master of the Roman Empire. 
He chose Christians to fill the highest offices in the 
State, erected the magnificent Church of the Apostles 
in Constantinople, and began the erection of St. Peter's 
Basilica at Rome (323). His most magnificent work 
was the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, 
which was solemnly dedicated in 335. St. Helena, the 
mother of Constantine, aided by St. Macarius, Bishop 
of Jerusalem, succeeded in discovering the True Cross 
of our Savior not far from the place of the crucifixion. 

67. Sons of Constantine. — After the death of 
Constantine (337), his three sons carried on his work, 

(43) 



44 SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

though with far less toleration. Constantius ruled as 
sole monarch for ten years after the death of his 
brothers Constance and Constantine II. He favored 
Arianism whilst endeavoring to uproot Paganism. But 
with the advent of his successor, another attempt was 
made to revive the customs and the religion of pagan 
Rome. 

68. Julian the Apostate. — Though educated in the 
Christian religion, Julian, the cousin of Constantius, 
had long been secretly attached to Paganism. Upon 
ascending the throne, he resolved to restore pagan 
worship. He suppressed all privileges granted to 
ecclesiastics, plundered the churches, destroyed the 
tombs and shrines of the saints, and scattered the holy 
relics to the winds. In order to falsify the words of 
Christ he made an attempt to rebuild Jerusalem and 
the Temple. But God, who orders all things for the 
accomplishment of His adorable will, frustrated his 
plan. When the laborers, mostly Jews, had removed 
the old foundations, lire burst forth from the earth 
and dispersed the workmen. Many Jews and pagans 
were thereby led to recognize the Divinity of our 
Lord and sought admission into the Church. Julian 
himself perished miserably in an expedition against 
the Persians. His death was generally regarded as a 
judgment of God, who with special providence kept 
watch over the destinies of the Church. 

69. His Successors. — The successors of Julian 
were Christian emperors, who restored to the Church 
the rights and privileges of which she had been so 
unjustly deprived. At the same time they labored 
to stamp out all pagan worship. In 391, Theodosius 
the Great caused all the temples of the gods through- 
out the East to be closed. In the West, Paganism 
still existed, though it was confined almost exclusively 
to the villages and towns. (Whence the name pagan, 
from pagaiius, signifying a villager or peasant.) 



SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 45 

II. Fall of the Roman Empire 

70. Cause of the Decay. — By failing to perform 
the duties imposed upon them by God, nations as well 
as individuals become guilty of sin and therefore 
deserve punishment. In the designs of Providence, 
Rome was to use her world-wide power to facilitate 
the spread of Christianity among the nations. Far 
from complying with this mission, she hampered the 
growth of the Church in every possible way, and sank 
into an ever-increasing corruption. The former proud 
mistress of the world was now to be humbled by the 
hordes of barbarians that like a threatening cloud had 
for years menaced Rome. 

71. Barbarian Invasions. — From about the year 
400 we may date those barbarian inroads that even- 
tually caused the downfall of the Western Empire, 
thereby preparing the way for the modern European 
monarchies. These hordes of uncivilized tribes came 
from the inhospitable regions of northern and eastern 
Europe and overran the southern countries in search 
of plunder and of fairer lands,, spreading carnage and 
devastation on all sides, as they passed through Italy. 
Gaul and Spain. 

During the reign of Honorius, the terrible Alaric, 
king of the Visigoths, swept over Italy and covered 
it with ruins. Rome was taken by storm, sacked and 
pillaged. Under Valentinian III, Attila, king of the 
Huns, advanced upon Rome, then rising from the ruins 
left by Alaric. At this juncture Pope St. Leo went 
out to meet him and induced him to withdraw his 
troops from Italy. Three years later St. Leo met the 
Vandal king Genseric, bent upon the destruction of 
Rome, and prevailed upon him to forego all blood- 
shed, torture and destruction ; but the barbarian king 
permitted his horde to plunder the city during twelve 
days. An immense amount of booty was secured, and 
thousands of the inhabitants were carried off into 
captivity. 



46 SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

72. Fall of the Empire.— In 476 Odoacer, king of 
the Heruli, speaking in the name of the barbarians 
generally, demanded two-thirds of the soil of Italy. 
Upon the refusal of Romulus Augustulus, the last of the 
Western emperors, he took Ravenna, exiled the youth- 
ful emperor into Campania, and assumed the title of 
King of Italy. The remaining provinces became the 
prey of the invading hordes. All were eager to share 
the spoils of the great nation which had pent them 
up so long in the solitary forests of the frozen North. 

Thus ended the mightiest empire the world had 
ever seen, having lasted about 1228 years from the 
time of its foundation by Romulus. In the world's 
history, other kingdoms and empires have sprung into 
existence, have flourished and decayed; but there is 
one kingdom that knows no decay — the Church of 
God, founded upon the Rock of Peter, and destined 
to last until the end of time. 

73. The Church and Barbarism. — The Church was 
the first to succeed in subduing and pacifying these 
powerful, but rude and uncultivated nations, whose 
descendants are now the inhabitants of civilized 
Europe. It was the Church that taught them to under- 
stand and to love peace and civilized life, and trained 
them in knowledge and in the arts of industry. The 
Catholic Church alone defended, preserved, and 
rescued, from amid the general wreck caused by these 
incursions, the remains of all that civilization, litera- 
ture, arts and sciences had brought to such perfection 
in ancient Rome. And when we see these barbarous 
people transformed into gentle, peaceful tillers of the 
soil, clearing the forests, laving out roads, building 
bridges, founding towns and cities, cultivating the arts 
and sciences, we see but the result of the tact, the 
wisdom, and the influence of the Church. It is an 
indisputable fact of history that the Catholic Church, 
through the energy and piety of her bishops, mission- 
aries and monks, established social and political order, 
education, liberty, prosperity and morality upon the 



SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 47 

ruins of the ancient Roman Empire, and thus saved 
Europe from lapsing into barbarism, idolatry, and 
superstition. 

III. Progress of Religion in the West 

74. The Visigoths. — The Visigoths, or Western 
Goths, were the first to embrace Christianity. In the 
course of their wanderings they had come to Constanti- 
nople, where many were converted to Christianity by 
the heretical Arians. This heresy clung to them even 
after they had continued their wanderings through 
Greece and Italy, and had finally settled in Gaul and 
Spain, about 419. At the end of the sixth century, 
however, the conversion of their king Recared to the 
Catholic Faith was followed by that of a great number 
of his people. 

75. The Franks. — In the fifth century the Franks 
began their migration from the country lying north 
of the Rhine, and established themselves in northern 
Gaul. Gradually forcing the Visigoths to the south, 
they finally compelled them to cross the Pyrenees. 
Clovis, king of the Franks, having married Clotilda, 
a Christian princess of Burgundy, was converted and 
baptized by St. Remigius, bishop of Reims. The 
Franks followed the example of their king. The glad 
tidings thereof diffused joy throughout Christendom, 
more especially because all other Christian rulers of 
that time were adherents and protectors of the Arian 
heresy. 

76. The Britons. — The Gospel was preached in 
Britain during the second century. In the beginning 
of the third, Tertullian numbers among the conquests 
of the Gospel "Britain, unconquerable by the Roman 
arms, but reduced to the obedience of Christ". In 
Britain, the Christians were persecuted under the 
Roman Emperors Diocletian and Maximianus, during 
which time St. Alban received the martyr's crown. In 
the fourth century the heresy of Pelagius made great 
progress in Britain. Gildas tells us that "the Britons 



48 SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

were always itching for novelties and changes", and 
that "every heresy found patronage among them". 
Next came the invasion of the idolatrous Saxons, then 
the ravages of the Danes and others, so that the Faith 
was almost extinguished. Its torch was kept dimly 
burning only in the mountainous parts of Wales. 

In 596 Pope St. Gregory the Great sent Augustine, 
a Benedictine monk, with a number of missionaries 
of the same order, to labor at the conversion of Britain. 
King Ethelbert of Kent, who was then at the head of 
the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, had married Bertha, the 
Catholic daughter of Caribert, king of the Franks. On 
this account he was well disposed towards the mis- 
sionaries, and. yielding to the power of grace, was 
baptized together with a great number of his subjects. 
St. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canter- 
bury ; and soon after, the bishoprics of London and 
York were established. About the year 660 the Seven 
Kingdoms were converted, and the two metropolitan 
sees of London and York were each the center of a 
dozen suffragan bishoprics. Schools and monasteries 
soon flourished in great numbers. 

77. Ireland. — Ireland was converted by St. Patrick 
(432), who founded the bishopric of Armagh, estab- 
lished convents and flourishing schools, and led the 
entire nation into the one fold of Christ. Owing to 
the great number of virtuous persons whose holy lives 
gave glory to God and added such lustre to the Catholic 
Faith, Ireland has merited to be called the "Isle of 
Saints". Its people were the missionaries and the 
monks of barbarian times. Issuing from the sanctu- 
aries of their ancient abbeys, the Irish apostles went 
forth to the conquest of souls in France, in Italy, and 
in Spain. One of these missionaries from Ireland was 
St. Columba, who went to Scotland in 565, and at his 
death left the whole country Catholic. 

78. Germany. — In Germany, the country along the 
Rhine was the first to receive the light of the Gospel. 
As early as the year 150, Christian congregations were 



SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 49 

in a flourishing condition; and when in the year 336 
St. Athanasius, the exiled Bishop of Alexandria, came 
to Germany, he found bishops in Strassburg, Cologne, 
Speyer, Worms and Trier. In South Germany, too, 
on the banks of the Danube, the Cross was firmly 
planted at a very early period, and the soil was con- 
secrated by the blood of numerous martyrs. 

The invasion of the Huns, Allemani, and other 
barbarous tribes had well-nigh destroyed the Church 
in Germany; but, in order to restore and re-establish 
the Faith, God raised up a zealous and holy missionary, 
St. Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface, who became 
the Apostle of Germany. Having entered upon his 
missionary labors, first in Friesland, Thuringia, and 
among the Hessians, he afterwards preached in 
Bavaria, then in the countries along the Rhine, and 
even in France. At the age of 75, he undertook a 
second mission into Friesland, where he received the 
crown of martyrdom. 

IV. The Eastern Church 

79. The Church in Asia. — A rich and abundant 
harvest sprang up in Asia from the seed sown by 
Christ and His Apostles. During the first three cen- 
turies Antioch, Tyre, Ephesus and Smyrna were 
flourishing gardens in the Church of Christ. Christian 
piety, morals and knowledge spread throughout every 
quarter of western and southern Asia. Most of these 
Eastern nations, however, gradually forgetting how 
much they were indebted to the Gospel, began to look 
upon the maxims of Christianity as an intolerable bur- 
den. The visitations of Divine Justice soon fell upon 
these ungrateful people. The first heavy blow of retri- 
bution came from the hands of the Persian kings, who, 
during a period of three hundred years (till 620) perse- 
cuted the Church of Asia with fire and sword. 

80. The Church in Africa.— In Africa, the Gospel 
reached Abyssinia during the reign of Constantine. 
Edesius and Frumentius were Christian Greeks living 



50 SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

in. Tyre. When still mere boys they accompanied an 
uncle on a voyage to Abyssinia. Stopping at one of 
the harbors on the Red Sea, their ship was taken by 
the people of the neighborhood, who massacred the 
entire crew, sparing only the two boys. These were 
carried as slaves to the king of Axum, in Abyssinia. 
The great influence which they acquired here they 
used in furthering the interests of Christianity. 
Edesius eventually returned to his native city and was 
ordained priest. Frumentius had accompanied him as 
far as Alexandria, and, upon being consecrated bishop 
by St. Athanasius, returned to Abyssinia and preached 
the Gospel with great success. Abyssinian tradition 
credits St. Frumentius with the first Ethiopian trans- 
lation of the New Testament. 

81. Islamism. — Having thus far traced the won- 
derful progress and development of the Church, we 
are now brought to face another religious power, which 
sprang up in the East, and which destroyed a great 
part of the work that had been accomplished for the 
salvation of the human family. Mohammed, a clever 
impostor, born at Mecca in Arabia in 570, was the 
founder and the moving spirit of a new sect. At the 
age of forty he declared himself inspired by God, and 
began to spread a new religion, a compound of Judaism 
and Christianity, with an admixture of notions peculiar 
to pagan Arabia. He denounced the idolatry of his 
countrymen, stating that there is "but one God, and 
that Mohammed is his prophet". Being persecuted by 
his neighbors, he fled with some of his followers to 
Medina, in 622. This is called the Hegira, or Flight 
of the Prophet, a period that marks the beginning of 
Arabian chronology, and the time from which the 
Mohammedans date their religion. Mohammed's 
religious system, known as Islamism, was embodied 
in the Koran, the sacred book of his followers. By 
force of arms, Islamism spread rapidly over western 
Asia, whence it reached Spain through the emigration 
of the Arabs. 



SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 51 

Since the rise of Mohammedanism, Asia has con- 
tinued to be a decayed branch fallen from the Christian 
tree of life ; and whereas the Apostles conquered the 
world by imposing a restraint upon human passions 
and allowing themselves to be put to death in defense 
of their faith, Mohammed succeeded in spreading his 
doctrines by giving full scope to every passion, and by 
slaying those who refused submission to these doc- 
trines. 

Topical Outline 
I 

66. Constantine granted civil and religious liberty 
to the Church. 

67. The sons of Constantine favored Arianism. 

68. Julian endeavored to restore Paganism. 

69. The successors of Julian labored to abolish 
pagan worship. 

II 

70. The Roman Empire was unfaithful to its 
mission and fell into decay. 

71. Barbarian hordes overran Europe. 

72. Odoacer, becoming king of Italy, put an end 
to the Roman Empire. 

73. The Church subdued and civilized the bar- 
barians. 

Ill 

74. The Arian Visigoths were converted to the 
Faith. 

75. St. Remigius baptized Clovis and converted the 
Franks. 

76. Britain almost lost the Faith, then was recon- 
verted. 

77. Ireland became the "Isle of Saints", and sent 
missionaries abroad. 

78. St. Boniface was the Apostle of Germany. 



52 SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 



IV 



79. The Church in Asia flourished and decayed. 

80. St. Frumentius preached the Gospel in Africa. 

81. Mohammed established Islamism in Arabia. 
See Notes: Sanctuary, Gildas, suffragan. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

St. Helena: "Off to Jerusalem," by M. A. Benziger (B. B.). 

P. 127. "The Church of the Holy Sepulchre." 

"The Finding of the Cross," by Louis de Combes (B. B.). 

Ch. I, "The Holy Places in the Year 33;" Ch. Ill, "The 

Labarum;" Ch. IV, "The Recovery of the True Cross." 
Barbarians: "The Holy See and the Wandering of the 

Nations," by T. W. Allies (B. B.). Ch. I, "The Visigoths, 

Ostrogoths, Vandals and Huns." 

"The Middles Ages," by Rev. Thomas J. Shahan (B. B.). 

P. 9, "Gregory the Great and the Barbarian World." 
Franks: "The Old Chest," by Anna T. Sadlier (P. J. K.). 

Ch. I, "The Frankish Soldier, V Century!" Ch. II, "The 

Conversion, VI Century." 

"Sainted Queens," by a Secular Priest (B. B.). Ch. II, 

"Clotilda, Queen of the Franks." 
Britain: "The Young Captive," An Historical Tale (P. J. K.). 
Ireland: "Ireland and St. Patrick," by W. B. Morris (B. B.). 

"St. Patrick in History," by the Right Rev. Mgr. Thomas 

J. Shahan (L. G.). 
Conversions: "The Conversion of the Teutonic Race, or 

The First Apostles of Europe," by Mrs. Hope (B. B.). 

Vol. I, Part II, Ch. I, "The Franks;" Vol. I, Part II, 

Ch. IV, "The Irish;" Vol. I, Part III, "England." Vol. II. 

"St. Boniface and Germany." 

Islamism: "Peter's Rock in Mohammed's Flood," by T. W. 
Allies (B. B). Ch. IV, "Christendom and Islam." 
"The Middle Ages," by Rev. Thomas J. Shahan (B. B.). 
P. 113, "The Religion of Islam." 

Constantine: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. Coler 
(F. D. B.). Ch. II, "What Things are Caesar's?" 
"Faustula," by John Ayscough. Dealing with the new 
state of things resulting from Consta.ntine's conversion, 
but interrupted by the accession and apostasy of Julian 
(B. B.). 



CHAPTER VII 

internal life of the church 
1. Constitution and Organization 

82. The Pope. — The primacy of the pope during 
this second period is clearly shown by the following 
facts : The Roman pontiffs followed each other in 
direct succession from the time of St. Peter; heretics 
as well as Catholics appealed to the pope as to the 
supreme tribunal ; the ecumenical councils were in all 
cases presided over by the papal legates ; the popes 
confirmed the election of bishops, or even deposed 
them in case of necessity; and finally, the primacy of 
the Bishop of Rome has ever been the positive teach- 
ing of the Doctors and of the Councils of the Church. 

83. The Patriarchs.— The Council of Nicaea (325) 
recognized and approved of the superior rank enjoyed 
by the churches of Alexandria, Antioch and Rome. In 
381 the council held at Constantinople decreed a similar 
privilege in favor of that city, which was then the 
new capital of the empire. In 451 the Council of 
Chalcedon gave the title of "patriarch" to the bishops 
of these four episcopal sees, and to the Bishop of 
Jerusalem as well. It then became the privilege of 
the patriarch to confirm the election of bishops, and 
to approve of their consecration, to convoke, and to 
preside at certain councils, and to receive appeals 
against metropolitan bishops. 

84. The Bishops. — The Nicene Council decreed 
that the bishops of a province should elect every new 
bishop, and that this election should be confirmed by 
the metropolitan. By way of concession, however, 
the emperor and the people were permitted to inter- 
vene. Thus in the East, Justinian I allowed the most 
important citizens to cast a vote in electing their 
bishop. This intervention of the State in matters 
purely ecclesiastical was even more marked in the 
West, The Synod of Orleans (549), in France, granted 

(53) 



54 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

the king the privilege of confirming the election, whilst 
in Spain, among the Visigoths, the choice of the bishop 
was confided to the king and to the Archbishop of 
Toledo. In Italy, Theodoric the Great, upon the death 
of Pope John I, named Pope Felix IV, and placed 
him, without further formality, upon the Chair of 
Peter. This manner of interference in the rights of 
the Church was open to serious abuse, as we shall 
see in the sequel. 

85. The Clergy. — In the fourth century, after the 
conversion of the Emperor Constantine, the Church 
grew so rapidly, that, besides the bishop's church in 
the chief city, many other congregations were formed 
in the surrounding country and entrusted to the priests, 
who then became pastors. These were placed in charge 
of separate churches with full power to conduct Divine 
service and to exercise the care of souls, but always 
in the name of the bishop. At the time of the Council 
of Chalcedon (451) such "parishes" existed every- 
where. 

86. Ecumenical Councils. — During this epoch of 
great doctrinal crises, the life of the Church manifested 
itself by a number of general conventions known as 
Ecumenical Councils. The first eight general councils 
were held in the East for the purpose of shielding the 
Church from the evils brought upon her by various 
heretics, beginning with Arius and ending with Photius. 

In these councils, held at various times at Nicaea, 
Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon, the whole 
Church was represented, the bishops in general being 
invited to attend. Owing to the difficulties of travel, 
the popes could not be present at these councils in per- 
son ; but they were represented by their legates. These 
presided over the deliberations, and it was through 
them that the popes signified their assent to the decrees 
of the councils. After being formally ratified by the 
popes, the decrees were gathered together into a code 
known as the Collection of Canons, the basis of present 
canon law. 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 50 

II. Discipline and Worship 

87. Ecclesiastical Celibacy. — The Council of 
Nicaea forbade all deacons, priests and bishops to 
marry after their ordination. The Emperor Justinian 
made this point of Church discipline a law of State. 
Pope Leo I extended the law to all who received the 
ordination to the sub-deaconship. 

One of the greatest advantages resulting from this 
law was the facility afforded the missionaries for 
traversing, unhampered by family ties, the then unset- 
tled country, intent only on bringing the light of Faith 
to the barbarous tribes inhabiting almost inaccessible 
forest recesses. 

88. The Sacraments. — (a) The Sacrament of Bap- 
tism was administered in the baptisteries, on the vigils 
of Easter and Pentecost. Among the ceremonies 
attending its administration were : the "insufflation" 
after exorcism ; the sign of the cross upon the ears, the 
forehead and the breast ; the salt placed upon the 
tongue ; the renunciation of Satan, and the recitation 
of the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. As a number of 
persons, through prejudice or indifference, preferred 
to postpone the reception of the sacrament until the 
hour of death, the Church protested against this prac- 
tice, and ordered the baptism of infants shortly after 
their birth. 

(b) In the East there prevailed the custom of 
administering the Sacraments of Confirmation and of 
Holy Eucharist immediately after baptism ; but later 
on, the reception of these two sacraments was deferred 
until the recipients attained matur.er years. 

(c) At the beginning of this period. Holy Com- 
munion was received very frequently. St. Augustine 
tells of the faithful communicating weekly and even 
daily. However, Constantine's conversion brought a 
number of merely nominal Christians into the Church, 
and this laudable custom soon ceased to be the general 
rule. 



56 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

(d) The practice of making public confession of 
sin was entirely suppressed, and secret sacramental 
confession, which has been the practice of the Church 
from the earliest days, was used exclusively. At the 
same time, the use of indulgences became more and 
more frequent. 

(e) The Sacrament of Extreme Unction could not 
be administered except with oils previously blessed 
by the bishop. 

(f) The Sacrament of Matrimony took place in the 
presence of the bishop or the priest, during the Holy 
Sacrifice of the Mass. 

(g) The Sacrament of Holy Orders was conferred 
with special rites and ceremonies. In the early Roman 
Church the sacred orders were conferred upon deacons, 
priests and bishops amid a great concourse of clergy 
and people. The candidates were summoned by name 
at the beginning of the solemn Mass. Anyone object- 
ing to a candidate was called upon to state his objec- 
tions without fear. Before the Gospel the candidates 
were presented to the pope, and the entire congregation 
recited the litanies. The pope then laid his hands upon 
the head of each candidate and recited the prayer of 
consecration. Later on, other ceremonies were added. 
The hands of the deacon, and the head and hands of 
priests and bishops, were anointed with holy oils. 

89. Liturgical Discipline. — (a) The Holy Mass. — 
The portions of the Epistles and Gospels to be read 
at the Mass were determined for the various feasts. 
The reading of the sacred text was followed .by an 
explanation or sermon given by the bishop. The 
essential and central point of the Mass was always 
the Consecration. It was preceded by the offerings 
made by the faithful, consisting of wine, bread, oil 
and incense. At a later date the offerings were 
replaced by a contribution in money, wherewith the 
requisites for the Holy Sacrifice were procured. 

(b) The Chant. — The Gregorian Chant was the 
official chant of the Roman Church. It received the 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 57 

name Gregorian because it was revised at Rome and 
generally diffused throughout the Christian world in 
the time of Pope St. Gregory (590-604). It is also 
called plain chant, being a simple, uniform and natural 
song, and, if properly rendered, it is well calculated 
to express religious sentiments, and to awaken pious 
emotions in the soul. 

(c) Processions. — The Procession, a ceremony of 
penance, began in the fifth century. St. Mamertus, 
Bishop of Vienne, in France, instituted the Rogations 
or days of prayer, and held processions to appease the 
Divine wrath, which manifested itself at that time in 
the form of dreadful calamities that threatened the 
nations. 

(d) Feasts. — The principal feasts were Christmas, 
Easter and Pentecost. On the feast of Christmas, 
each priest was permitted to say three Masses. On the 
vigils of Easter and Pentecost, baptism was solemnly 
administered. Easter was preceded by the season of 
Lent, during which time Christians abstained from 
celebrating marriages, and . avoided all joyous fes- 
tivities. 

(e) The Saints. — During the persecutions, the 
Church rendered special honor to the holy martyrs, 
and celebrated the anniversary of their martyrdom as 
a special feast day. The most popular feasts were 
those of St. Stephen and of Saints Peter and Paul.- 
After the reign of Constantine, the Church likewise 
honored with a special feast those of her children who 
had distinguished themselves during life by the prac- 
tice of extraordinary virtue and holiness. These were 
honored under the title of confessors, among whom 
Pope St. Sylvester and St. Martin of Tours were par- 
ticularly remembered. 

(f) The Blessed Virgin Mary. — The Church had 
always shown the highest esteem and veneration for 
the Holy Mother of God. However, after the con- 
demnation of Nestorius at the Council of Ephesus 
(431), the devotion to Mary rose to be an essential 



58 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

feature in the life of the Church. Feasts were insti- 
tuted in her honor, such as the Purification and the 
Annunciation, and somewhat later, those of the 
Assumption and the Nativity. The feast of the Immac- 
ulate Conception was observed in many places as early 
as the seventh century. Gradually the whole Church 
began to adopt it. 

These feasts and festivals in honor of the Blessed 
Virgin give evidence that Christ lives in His Church 
as the Son of Mary. As on earth Jesus was subject 
to His Virgin Mother in holy obedience and respectful 
love, so, too, should the Church of Christ continue to 
offer unceasingly to the Mother of her Divine Founder 
a fond and willing tribute of love, admiration, and 
respect. 

(g) Places of Worship. — After the conversion of 
Constantine the Great, the liberality of the imperial 
family and the generosity of the faithful caused the 
erection of numerous churches which were magnifi- 
cently adorned. The usual ground-plan was in the 
form of a cross, in remembrance of the Cross of Cal- 
vary. The altar was surmounted by a canopy resting 
on four columns, between which curtains of costly 
material were hung, thus veiling the altar. From the 
middle of the canopy was suspended a dove-shaped 
vessel in which the Blessed Sacrament was reserved. 

The faithful were summoned to Divine service by 
the sound of the trumpet, or by means of a powerful 
rattle. Bells were introduced in the West after the 
seventh century, and in the East after the ninth. 

i h ) Funeral Rites. — After Constantine, the dead 
were interred in cemeteries above ground. The funeral 
processions advanced to the place of sepulture amid the 
singing of hymns and canticles. The dead were carried 
with their faces uncovered ; for the faithful did not then 
look upon death as a sad event, but as a happy transi- 
tion of the soul from this mortal life to the true life 
of eternal bliss. Nor did the Christians put on the 
dress of mourning. Arrived at the tomb, they recited 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 59 

the prayers for the dead, and after giving the kiss of 
peace to the departed, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass 
was offered at the place of interment. Funeral services 
were repeated on the third, the seventh and the thir- 
tieth days, and on the anniversary of the death of the 
departed. 

Topical Outline 
I 

82. The primacy of the popes is proven by facts. 

83. Five patriarchal sees were recognized by the 
Church. 

84. The State intervened in the election of bishops. 

85. The priests were made pastors of parishes. 

86. The Church held ecumenical councils, and 
established canon law. 

II 

87. Ecclesiastical celibacy was gradually enforced. 

88. The Church regulated the reception of the 
sacraments. 

89. The discipline of the Church was well defined. 

See Notes: Toledo, Photius, canon law, insufflation. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Theodoric: "Peter's Rock in Mohammed's Flood," by T. W. 

Allies (B. B.). Ch. VII, "Genseric, Theodoric." 
Councils: "The Papacy and the First Councils of the 

Church," by Rev. Thomas S. Dolan (B. H.). Ch. I, 

"Nice and Sardica." Ch. II, "The Second Ecumenical 

Synod, Constantinople, A. D. 381." 
Blessed Virgin: "Veneration of the Blessed Virgin," by Rev. 

B. Rohner, O. S. B. (B. B.). Part II, "Festivals of the 

Blessed Virgin." 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 

90. The Monastic Life. — Among the multitudes of 
heathens who followed the example of Constantine and 
professed themselves Christians there were many who, 
whilst externally submitting themselves to the Church, 
continued in their vices and passions. Others, who 
had long been Christians, gradually lost their original 
fervor in the luxury of repose. It pleased God, there- 
fore, to provide for his faithful servants a refuge in 
which they might perpetuate in the Church the life 
of primitive holiness. Many withdrew from the world 
to live apart in the desert. From the beginning of the 
Church there had been men and women who, under 
the name of ascetics, had renounced the pleasures of 
the world, and had devoted themselves to meditation 
and prayer; but now communities were formed of those 
who wished to lead a more perfect life. 

St. Anthony of Coma, having distributed his large 
property, lived for twenty years as a hermit in Upper 
Egypt. Without entirely forsaking his solitary life, 
he then gathered about him a group of anchorites, 
who dwelt in their own cells, but enjoyed the benefit 
of his spiritual direction. After triumphantly defend- 
ing the Church against infidels and heretics, and power- 
fully counteracting the tepidity of the times, he died 
at the age of one hundred and five years (356). 

St. Pachomius established his first monastery on 
the Nile, and gave the monks a fixed rule of life. St. 
Hilarion carried the monastic life into Palestine, and 
St. Basil the Great established the Greek convents of 
Cappadocia, of Bithynia and of Pontus. In Persia, 
monasticism was introduced as early as the fourth 
century. By degrees it spread over the whole East. 

In the beginning, the monks were free to return to 
the world with the permission of the abbot, who was 
the superior or head of the monastery. In the fifth 
and sixth centuries, however, the perpetual vows of 
poverty, chastity and obedience were introduced, 
(60) 



THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 61 

whereby the members voluntarily bound themselves 
to devote their whole lives to the service of God. 
Until the tenth century the monks were chiefly lay- 
men ; but every monastery had at least one or two 
priests for officiating at the Divine service. 

91. Monasticism in the West. — Exiled from the 
East, St. Athanasius in 340 brought to Rome a number 
of monks from the Egyptian monasteries. St. Eusebius 
of Vercelli, in Italy, returning from exile in the Egyp- 
tian desert of Thebais, established monasteries on the 
plan of those he had visited whilst abroad. St. Martin 
founded the first monastery in Gaul. At a later date 
St. Ambrose and St. Jerome continued in Italy the 
work begun by St. Athanasius. St. Augustine founded 
several monasteries in Africa, whence the monastic 
life was introduced into Spain. 

92. The Object of Monasticism. — The object of 
these solitaries in retiring to the desert was to devote 
themselves entirely to the service of God, in order 
that, undisturbed by worldly cares, they might strive 
after Christian perfection by the practice of the evan- 
gelical counsels of poverty, chastity and obedience. 
They used four principal means to attain this end : 
solitude, manual labor, fasting and prayer. Following 
the example of Jesus Christ, they wished to sacrifice 
themselves entirely for the world, rendering God that 
atonement, adoration and thanksgiving which the 
world owes, but which it commonly neglects to pay. 
St. Athanasius, speaking of the disciples of St. Anthony, 
says : "Their monasteries are like so many temples in 
which life is spent in singing psalms, in reading, pray- 
ing, fasting, watching; in which all hope rests on the 
world unseen, and all are united in perfect charity; in 
which they toil less for their own subsistence than for 
the poor. Severed from the common world, the blessed 
inhabitants of this vast region have no other care than 
growth in holiness." 

93. St. Benedict. — St. Benedict was the patriarch 
of the monks in the West. Born at Nursia in Italy of 



62 THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 

noble parents in 480, he was sent to Rome to study ; but 
the vices of the youth among whom he lived induced 
him to withdraw into the solitude of Subiaco, not far 
from Rome, where he led the life of a hermit. From this 
place he went to Monte Cassino, where he framed 
his renowned rule of monastic life, in which Christian 
rigor is mingled with paternal mildness, zeal for the 
glory of God is combined with tender solicitude for 
the welfare of our neighbor, and profound wisdom of 
life is tempered with child-like simplicity. 

St. Benedict died in 543, but his work continues 
to live through succeeding ages. The monks of the 
Benedictine Order became, in the hands of God, the 
chosen instruments to rebuild Europe on the ruins 
which the barbarous invaders from the North had left 
on all sides. They preserved in their monasteries the 
treasures of pagan wisdom and the sacred learning of 
Christian antiquity. The part these monks played in 
the history of civilization, and in the preservation of 
science and of literature, entitles them to a position 
acknowledged only by the Catholic Church. They were 
the pioneers of science, the founders of our modern 
school and university system, the custodians of the 
libraries, the liberators of the slaves, the protectors of 
the people, the lights of Europe. Their monasteries 
became fortresses of culture against barbarian inva- 
sions, and centers from which missionaries went forth 
to subjugate the world to the dominion of Christ. 

94. Religious Women. — Though in the primitive 
Church men were set apart by ordination for the 
founding of the Kingdom of Christ on earth, women 
also, by a special consecration, were to take part in 
the Divine work of sanctifying the world. Thus in 
the Apostolic times we find, besides the deaconesses 
of the churches, a large class of consecrated virgins 
who lived an ascetic and retired life. Before Constan- 
tine gave civil freedom and protection to Christianity, 
it was impossible for nuns to live in religious com- 
munities with any degree of safety. During the first 
three centuries they lived in the female apartments 
of their homes, secluded from general society. They 



THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 63 

devoted their time to prayer and reading, to spinning 
and working in wool. They also educated the younger 
females of the household. In the life of St. Anthony 
mention is made for the first time of a "house for 
virgins", into which he placed his sister. The number 
of these convents soon increased, and in many instances 
founders of monastic life appointed their own sisters 
as abbesses of these new establishments. Among these 
holy women were Saints Marina, Marcellrna and 
Scholastica, the sisters respectively of Saints Basil, 
Ambrose and Benedict. 

Topical Outline 

90. The monastic life in the East recalls the names 
of Saints Anthony, Pachomius, Hilarion and Basil the 
Great. 

91. Saints Athanasius, Eusebius, Martin, Ambrose, 
Jerome and Augustine introduced the monastic life in 
the West. 

92. The monastic life tended to raise men to Chris- 
tian perfection. 

93. The monks of St. Benedict played a great part 
in the history of European civilization. 

94. The virginal or ascetic life of religious women 
is coeval with Christianity. 

See Notes: Anchorites, Subiaco, Monte Cassino. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

St. Augustine: "The Monastic Life, from the Fathers of the 

Desert to Charlemagne," by T. W. Allies (B. B.). Ch. V, 

"St. Patrick and St. Augustine." 
Monastic Life: "Pearl of Antioch," by Abbe Bayle (P. J. K.). 

Ch. XI, "The Monks." 

"The Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand (J. M.). 

Part IV, Bk. Ill, Chs. Ill and IV, "The Monastic Life." 

Chs. V and VI, "Manners and Life of the Religious." 

"The Lives of the Fathers of the Eastern Deserts" 

(P. J. K.). 

"Religious and Monastic Life Explained," by Rt. Rev. 

Dom Prosper Gueranger, O. S. B. (B. H.). 

"The Monastic Life from the Fathers of the Desert to 

Charlemagne," by T. W. Allies (B. B.). 

"The Old Chest," by Anna T. Sadlier (P. J. K.). Ch. Ill, 

"The Monk." 



CHAPTER IX 

HERESIES AND SCHISMS 

95. Their Origin. — Christ still lives in His Church ; 
and He will live in it till the end of time as "a sign 
that shall be contradicted". During His life upon earth 
He was despised, and His Divine doctrine was rejected ; 
and therefore we must not wonder that His Holy 
Church should also be despised and her teachings 
rejected. The human intellect will never be able to 
grasp the profound mysteries of religion, and thus 
there will ever be individual minds that will rise in 
proud and blind rebellion against the word of God. 
The human heart will always be inclined to evil, and 
man will therefore be ever ready to controvert the 
truth of those doctrines which inculcate humility, 
obedience and self-control. In all ages, as in the days 
of Christ, the human conscience will endeavor to quiet 
itself, and to justify its unbelief. Proud men will ever 
entertain feelings of envy and hatred towards those 
who demand belief in the doctrines of an invisible 
Master, the more so when those teachers are blameless 
in their own lives. Here, then, we have the origin of 
all heresy and schism. 

96. Donatism. — (a) False Doctrine: The Schism 
of the Donatists, named after the bishop Donatus, 
desolated the Church in Africa for more than a hundred 
years. The Donatists' leading points of dissension 
from the Catholic doctrine were these : A sinner can- 
not validly administer a sacrament; and, only the just 
are members of the Church. 

(b) Consequences: According to the Donatists, 
no one would ever have the assurance of being a mem- 
ber of the Church, or of having received a sacrament 
validly. 

(c) The Catholic Doctrine: The virtue of the sac- 
raments does not depend upon the dispositions of the 
person who administers them, but they derive their 

(64) 



HERESIES AND SCHISMS 65 

efficacy from the grace of Jesus Christ ; and, sinners 
may be members of the Church, provided they have 
not been excommunicated. 

(d) History of the Schism: The election of the 
deacon Caecilian to the important episcopal see of 
Carthage aroused the envy of several ambitious pre- 
lates. A few bishops, with Donatus at their head, 
alleged that the consecration of the new bishop was 
not valid, and withdrew from his communion. The 
question was referred to the pope, who pronounced 
in favor of Caecilian. This judgment was supported 
by the Emperor Constantine, but Donatus and his 
adherents refused submission. They then sent letters 
in all directions to induce the faithful to break com- 
munion with Caecilian. This unhappy rupture occa- 
sioned endless disorders and miseries throughout the 
Church in Africa. The Donatists, upon being excom- 
municated, boasted of forming a separate and distinct 
body. They grew by degrees, and exercised against the 
Catholics cruelties that would seem incredible, were 
not the history of the Church replete with instances 
proving that the spirit of heresy and schism, in the 
main, has ever been essentially one of hatred and 
persecution. They seized the churches by force, drove 
away the bishops, demolished the vessels of the altar 
and the sanctuary. 

St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, wrote numerous 
books to refute their errors, but his success in convert- 
ing a large number rendered the remainder only more 
furious and cruel. The orthodox bishops then recom- 
mended a conference of all African bishops, both Cath- 
olic and Donatist. These eventually met at Carthage, 
where St. Augustine was again the leading spirit. 
The blessing of God accompanied the arguments of 
the holy doctor, and the greater number of the schis- 
matical bishops, with their deluded flocks, returned to 
the unity of the Church. 

97. Arianism. — (a) False Doctrine: Arius taught 
that the Son of God is distinct from the Father, not 



66 HERESIES AND SCHISMS 

only in person, but also in nature ; that He is not 
coeternal with, nor equal to, the Father, but is merely 
the first and most excellent of creatures. In this we 
see that Arius is in fact the father of our present day 
rationalists, who likewise deny the Divinity of Jesus 
Christ. 

(b) Consequences: Were Jesus Christ merely a 
creature, His labors and sufferings would not have 
been of infinite value, and therefore He could not have 
accomplished the redemption of mankind. 

(c) Catholic Doctrine: Jesus Christ is really and 
truly the Son of God, equal to the Father in all 
respects. He is consubstantial with the Father, dis- 
tinct in person, but one in God-head. 

(d) History: Arius was a priest of Alexandria, 
modest in demeanor, austere in life, but full of pride 
and ambition. At a conference held in 318, Arius, in 
presence of his bishop, publicly and for the first time 
announced his heretical views. The Synod of Alexan- 
dria, attended by one hundred bishops, after many 
fruitless efforts to bring Arius and his followers to 
reason, was at last compelled to pronounce sentence 
of excommunication against them. Arius withdrew 
into Palestine, and gained partisans for his heresy even 
among the bishops. 

The evils which threatened the Church rendered a 
general council imperative. The Emperor Constantine 
himself, in very respectful letters, begged the bishops 
of every country to come to Nicaea. Here the First 
Ecumenical Council was held in 325, at which three 
hundred and eighteen bishops were present, most of 
them being Greek. The main business of the council 
was to examine, and eventually to reject, the heresy 
of Arius. He was solemnly excommunicated, notwith- 
standing the opposition of twenty-two bishops, who 
favored the heretic. The Fathers of the council then 
drew up a profession of faith. All the bishops, except 
five Arians, signed this creed, and joined in the anath- 
ema pronounced against Arius and his heresy. The 



HERESIES AND SCHISMS 67 

emperor employed his temporal authority in support 
of the decisions of the council, and condemned Arius 
to be banished. 

The Arians were silenced, but not crushed. During 
three hundred years, God permitted Arianism to spread 
over a large part of Christendom. At the same time 
His all-wise Providence raised up a host of formidable 
and glorious confessors, who defended the truth 
against Arianism. Its falsehood was triumphantly 
refuted not only by St. Athanasius but also by Saints 
Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, 
Cyril of Jerusalem, and many others. 

98. Macedonianism. — After being forced upon the 
see of Constantinople by the Arians, Macedonius was 
enthroned by Constantius (342). He is known in his- 
tory for his persecution of Novatians and of Catholics ; 
for both maintained that the Son of God is consub- 
stantial with the Father. He is the founder of an 
heretical sect, which denied the Divinity of the Holy 
Ghost. The Second Ecumenical Council held at Con- 
stantinople in 381 condemned the Macedonian heresy, 
and internal divisions soon led to its extinction. 

99. Pelagianism. — (a) False Doctrine: Like the 
rationalists of our time, Pelagius, a misguided British 
monk, taught in Rome at the end of the fourth century, 
and afterwards in Carthage, that Adam's sin had 
inflicted no injury upon his descendants; that, conse- 
quently, there is no original sin, that baptism is not 
necessary for salvation, and that man has within him- 
self so much moral force that he can lead a virtuous 
life without the aid of grace. 

(b) Consequences: As a natural consequence of 
this doctrine, the Incarnation would have been super- 
fluous ; the ills of this life and all the disorders in the 
world would be inexplicable ; the sacraments, useless ; 
and man could, without God's help, easily keep the 
commandments. 

(c) Catholic Doctrine: Man, from the moment of 
his creation, was innocent and endowed with super- 



68 HERESIES AND SCHISMS 

natural grace. By his fall, he lost sanctifying grace ; 
his intelligence was obscured and his will inclined to 
evil. Moreover, to work out his salvation man abso- 
lutely needs the grace of God. 

(d) History: When Rome was sacked by the 
Goths in 410, Pelagius went to Carthage. Here St. 
Augustine soon became aware of his errors, and vigor- 
ously refuted them. Pelagius then went to Jerusalem 
and continued to teach his heresy. St. Augustine, 
hearing of this, had the question brought before two 
synods, whose decrees of condemnation were subse- 
quently confirmed by the' pope. St. Jerome was 
another champion of the Church against Pelagianism. 

100. Nestorianism. — (a) False Doctrine: One hun- 
dred years after Arius, Nestorius, patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, taught that there was only a moral, not 
a substantial union between the Divinity and the 
humanity of Christ ; accordingly, that the Son of God 
dwelt in Christ as in a living temple, and that, as Mary 
had given birth to the human nature only, she must 
not be styled the Mother of God. 

(b) Consequences: This is equivalent to denying 
the Redemption ; for, if the two natures are not essen- 
tially united in one person, Christ suffered and died 
on the cross merely as man, and therefore the suffer- 
ings of the Savior could not possess the infinite merit 
required for Redemption. 

(c) Catholic Doctrine: It has ever been believed 
in the Church that Jesus Christ is the Divine Word 
made flesh, and that there are consequently in Him 
two natures truly and substantially united in one per- 
son, so that the Blessed Virgin Mary is in all truth the 
Mother of God. 

(d) History: The heresy of Nestorius was opposed 
and refuted by several bishops and priests, but espe- 
cially by St. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria. In the 
Third General Council held at Ephesus (431), it was 
formally condemned. The Emperor Theodosius II 
decreed that the writings of Nestorius be burnt, and 



HERESIES AND SCHISMS t>U 

that he be banished to an oasis in Egypt. The Nes- 
torians themselves emigrated to Persia, where, being 
favored by the Persian kings, the number of their 
adherents continued to increase. In 499 a formal sepa- 
ration ensued between them and the Catholic Church. 
In India they called themselves Christians of St. 
Thomas. They spread as far as China. 

101. Eutychianism. — (a) False Doctrine: Euty- 
ches, superior of a convent near Constantinople, in his 
imprudent zeal to refute Nestorius, fell into the oppo- 
site error. He taught that after the Incarnation there 
was in our Lord Jesus Christ only one nature, the 
Divine. 

(b) Consequence: If Jesus Christ were not man, 
He could not have suffered and died for us ; for, God 
cannot die, and therefore no redemption is possible. 

(c) Catholic Doctrine : There are two distinct 
natures in Christ, the human and the Divine, and these 
two are hypostatically united in one Divine person. 

(d) History: Against this error and those who 
maintained and defended it, called Monophysites, Pope 
St. Leo the Great fought with the zeal and ability of 
an Apostle. The heresy was condemned in the year 
451 by the Fourth General Council, which was held 
at Chalcedon. 

102. Reflections : Whenever heresies and schisms 
afflicted the Church, God raised up holy and learned 
champions of the Faith to defend her unity, and the 
purity of her doctrine. To be ever in conflict and ever 
victorious is the destiny of Christ's Church on earth. 
Like her Divine Head, she glories in sufferings. The 
general persecutions had scarcely ceased when her own 
children became her worst enemies, and grieved and 
rent her heart by heresies and schisms. On every page 
of her history we read the record of these conflicts ; but 
we read also of the triumphs and the extension of the 
Church, and the consolidation of her dogmatic teach- 
ing. Had not the strong arm of God been uplifted 



70 HERESIES AND SCHISMS 

in her defense she must have perished in the Arian 
controversy. 

In the period we are now closing there were, not- 
withstanding the general state of peace, a multitude 
of martyrs. These were the victims of pagans in prov- 
inces nominally subject to the empire, or in independ- 
ent countries such as Persia and Africa. The Vandals 
were especially conspicuous for their cruelties. Hav- 
ing been brought up in Arianism, they bore the 
Catholics a deadly hatred. But the blood of the mar- 
tyrs was a glorious testimony rendered to the Divinity 
of Jesus Christ. 

During this period, also, monastic life presented a 
wonderful spectacle to the world. Multitudes of men 
and women, many of them largely endowed with the 
goods of this world, abandoned all and withdrew into 
the deserts of Egypt and Palestine to practice the 
evangelical counsels in the sublimest degree. Of their 
own free will, and animated with the desire of doing 
penance, they embraced poverty, toil and silence. 
They despised the world with its deceitful charms and 
treacherous gifts for the sake of "the things not seen, 
which are eternal". Their mode of life was a constant 
protest against the luxury and effeminacy which were 
sapping the virility and eating out the very heart of the 
empire. But their protest and their example were of 
no avail. The Romans refused to sacrifice their vices 
at the foot of the Cross, and God swept them away 
to make room for a race more receptive to the teachings 
of the Gospel. 

What the Church did for the spiritual reformation 
of mankind may be plainly seen in the work she accom- 
plished. She united the civilized as well as the bar- 
barous nations of the East and the ^Yest into one great 
world-empire, and elevated them to a higher, even to 
a supernatural unity. Her influence made itself felt 
in the individual life, as well as in that of entire 
nations : and from this influence resulted Christian fam- 
ily life and Christian government. 



HERESIES AND SCHISMS 71 



Topical Outline 

95. All heresy has its origin in the pride of the 
human intellect and in the depravity of the human 
heart. 

96. Donatism denied the necessity of communion 
with Rome. 

97. Arianism denied the Divinity of Jesus Christ. 

98. Macedonianism denied the Divinity of the 
Holy Ghost. 

99. Pelagianism denied original sin, and the neces- 
sity of grace. 

100. Nestorius denied the Divine maternity of the 
Blessed Virgin. 

101. The Eutychians or Monophysites refused to 
believe in the reality of the human nature of Jesus 
Christ. 

102. Reflections on the second period. 

See Notes: Ecumenical, Novatians, hypostatic union. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Arius: "Thalia; An Historical Tale of the Fourth Century," 
by Abbe A. Bayle (P. J. K.). Ch. V, "Arius." Ch. XII, 
"The Nicene Creed." 

St. Augustine: "Lectures on the History of Religions" (B. 

H.). Vol. Ill, "St. Augustine;" Vol. IV, "Eastern 

Churches." 
Heresy: "Christ in His Church," by Rev. Richard Brennan 

(B. B.). Ch. VIII, "The History of Heresy and Its 

Aggressions." 

"Life of St. Augustine," by Rev. Philip Burton, C. M. 

(B. B.). Ch. X, "The Donatists." Ch. XIII, "Pelagian- 
ism." 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER B 

INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

103. Upon Legislation. — The laws of this period 
in regard to civil and political rights were the direct 
result of the influence of the Church. The barbarians 
had, to say the least, a very incomplete idea of the right 
of property. Moreover, they could not understand 
that before the law all persons are equal. The Church 
secured the enactment of laws protecting persons and 
property. Constantine began by moderating those 
judicial proceedings that were the most cruel. He 
abolished punishment by crucifixion, mutilation, 
branding, and the like ; improved the condition of the 
prisons, and alleviated the lot of the prisoner. The 
bloody games of the amphitheatre were forbidden by 
imperial edicts. The condition of the slaves was ame- 
liorated by special laws, and the Church gradually led 
the way towards their complete emancipation. 

104. Upon the Family. — The most beautiful mis- 
sion of Christianity was the elevation of the family, 
by re-establishing the true relationship between its 
members. Marriage was declared sacred, and divorce 
was abolished. Without depriving the husband of his 
authority and pre-eminence, the Church taught him 
to consider the wife as his companion and helpmate, 
whom he was bound to love as Christ loved His 
Church. The wife, in turn, enjoyed the dignity of 
spouse and mother, and thus union, fidelity and peace 
returned to the family circle. Children -were consid- 
ered a sacred charge, and their present and future 
happiness constituted the principal solicitude of their 
parents. 

105. Upon Manners and Morals. — The Christian 
spirit manifested itself in the practice of solid virtue, 
which is the foundation of all good manners and 
morals. Barbarism had left man ignorant, indolent, 
irresolute ; the Church developed his intellect by her 

(72) 



INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 73 

teaching and her doctrine, and strengthened his will by- 
inculcating the practice of penance and mortification. 
Finally, the Church everywhere founded and developed 
schools ; and numerous charitable institutions, such as 
hospitals, orphanages, and asylums for the poor, the 
aged and the homeless, sprang into existence and 
flourished under her watchful care. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

• 

Influence of the Church: "The Floly See and the Wandering 
of the Nations," by T. W. Allies (B. B.). From St. Leo 
I to St. Gregory I. 

"History of the Catholic Church," by Dr. H. Brueck 
(B. B.). P. 128, "Influence of Christianity on Legisla- 
tion." 

Hospitals: "Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand (P. 
J. K.). Part IV, Bk. VI, Ch. II, "Hospitals." 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER C 

CHRISTIAN' LITERATURE 

106. The Fathers and Doctors of the Church.— 
The term "Fathers of the Church'" includes especially 
those earlier teachers and writers who were recognized 
by the Church as the authoritative interpreters of the 
teaching of the Apostles. In the West, St. Augustine 
was early recognized as the first of the Fathers, with 
St. Ambrose and St. Jerome as close seconds. St. 
Gregory the Great was subsequently added, and these 
four became known as the "Latin Doctors." In the 
East, St. John Chrysostom has always been the most 
popular. With the great St. Basil and St. Gregory 
Nazianzus he was included in the triumvirate called 
the "Three Hierarchs." St. Athanasius was added to 
these by the Western Church, and the four were called 
the "Greek Doctors." 

107. Literary Activity. — The fourth century was 
the great age of the Fathers. It was ushered in by 
Eusebius, whose "History" has gathered up the frag- 
ments of the history of the era of persecution, and has 
preserved to us more than half of all we know about 
the "Heroic Age of Faith." 

(a) Three years after the Nicene Council (325), St. 
Athanasius began his long episcopate of forty-five 
years. Though his writings are not very extensive, 
they are still of considerable theological and historical 
value on account of the leading part taken by this 
truly great man in the fifty years' struggle with 
Arianism. 

(b) The second half of the century was made illus- 
trious by St. Basil, by his brother, St. Gregory of 
Nyssa, and by St. Gregory of Xazianzus, the intimate 
friend of St. Basil. Their principal endeavor was to 
induce the East to return to orthodoxy. St. Basil com- 
posed what has remained practically the only rule for 
monks in the East. St. Gregory Xazianzus had equal" 

(74) 



CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 75 

abilities and learning, but excelled in eloquence. These 
three are known as the "Cappadocian Fathers," from 
their native place in Asia Minor. Their classical 
culture and literary proficiency, together with their 
sanctity and orthodoxy, make them a unique group in 
the history of the Church. 

(c) St. John, surnamed Chrysostom or the Golden- 
mouthed, on account of his great eloquence, is gener- 
ally ranked as the most distinguished Doctor of the 
Greek Church. He enjoys this distinction not merely 
on account of his excellence as an orator, but also 
because he is the author of varied and extensive writ- 
ings, in which respect he has not been surpassed by 
any of the Greek Fathers. 

(d) One of the great opponents of Arianism in the 
West was St. Ambrose. His sanctity and his achieve- 
ments make him one of the most imposing figures in 
the patristic period. His writings show a wonderful 
profundity of thought on ascetical, moral, and devo- 
tional matters. He was well read in the classics and 
in the works of Christian writers, both of the East 
and of the West ; but his best thoughts are the product 
of his own mind. 

(e) St. Jerome was one of the most learned of the 
Fathers. His many commentaries, the result of exten- 
sive reading, are brief, to the point, and full of infor- 
mation. Many of his letters are still extant, and prove 
him to have been a master of style. His greatest work 
is the translation of the Old Testament from the 
Hebrew into the Latin. His biographies of the her- 
mits, his works on monastic life, virginity, the Roman 
Faith, Our Blessed Lady, and the relics of the Saints, 
have exercised a wide influence. 

(f) St. Augustine was. the greatest controversialist 
the world has ever seen. He enjoys the unique dis- 
tinction of having exterminated three heresies. It is 
probably safe to assert that no one, except Aristotle, 
has exercised so vast and so profound an influence on 
European thought. 



76 CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 

As a professor of rhetoric before his conversion, St. 
Augustine was noted for his power of speaking and of 
writing with ease in a style of masterly simplicity. He 
had, in his lifetime, a reputation for miracles. His 
sanctity shines forth in the story of his life, and it per- 
meates his voluminous writings. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Fathers of the Church: "The Genius of Christianity," by 
Chateaubriand (J. M.). Part III, Bk. IV, Ch. II. 

St. Basil: "Tigranes," by Rev. J. J. Franco, S. J. (P. J. K.). 
Ch. I, "The School of Athens." 

St. Jerome: "The Catholic Church and the Bible," by Rev. 
Dr. Chauvin (B. H.). Part III, Ch. II, "The Vulgate." 



THIRD PERIOD 



FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO SAINT GREGORY 
VII (800-1073) 

CHAPTER X 

CHRISTIAN SOCIETY 

108. The Three Empires.— At the close of the 
eighth century the world was divided into three great 
empires : (a) the Moslem Empire, by far the most 
extensive. It represented the reign of pagan despotism, 
uniting in its ruler the supreme power of religion and 
of State ; (b) the Greek Empire, the smallest in extent 
and the feeblest in power. It was a Christian State 
that had repudiated its Catholic constitution ; (c) the 
Christian Empire, or the new Empire of the West, 
the most powerful of them all. It was established 
upon a truly Catholic basis, and constituted what 
might properly be called Christian Society. 

109. The Two Powers : The Church and the State. 

— Already before the time of Constantine the Roman 
Church possessed property, and the popes, as well as 
other bishops, exercised temporal jurisdiction over the 
Christians. After the conversion of Constantine, the 
Church came into possession of large property and of 
extensive rule by the donations and bequests made 
to her. In this way the popes and the bishops obtained 
considerable political rights. 

After the downfall of the Western Roman Empire, 
the political influence of the popes in Italy became 
still more important from the fact that they had to 
take under their protection that unfortunate country. 
Being compelled by the continual incursions of the 

(77) 



78 CHRISTIAN SOCIETY 

Lombards to apply for help, the popes at first had 
recourse to the Greek emperors ; but as these refused 
their aid, the same petition was presented to the Franks. 
Under the leadership of King Pepin, the Franks 
overthrew the Lombards, and gave the conquered 
territory to the Apostolic See. In this legitimate way 
the temporal power of the popes was, by the dispo- 
sition of Divine Providence, gradually established. 
History has shown that such a temporal independence 
of the pope was of paramount importance for the free- 
dom of the papal elections, for the pope himself, and 
for the exercise of his functions as the supreme 
authority in Christendom. 

The successors of St. Peter were at this time in 
great need of a powerful protector. In 799 Pope Saint 
Leo III, having been attacked and seriously ill-treated 
by a hostile party, betook himself to Charlemagne, 
the son of Pepin, who received him with the greatest 
honor at Paderborn, in Germany. After a few months, 
Charlemagne had the pope escorted to Rome, where 
he was received with great joy by the whole populace. 
His enemies were tried and sent as prisoners to 
France, known then as Frankland. In the following 
year (800), Charlemagne himself came to Rome. On 
Christmas day he received from the hands of the 
pope the imperial crown. This was, in reality, the 
restoration of the Western Empire. By this solemn 
act the pope and the emperor, the highest spiritual and 
temporal powers, entered into very intimate relation- 
ship. The Church acknowledged the Roman emperor 
as her protector, and throughout the Middle Ages it 
continued to be implicitly believed that the imperial 
crown could be granted only by the pope. 

1 10. Christian Society. — In the new form of society, 
under the Holy Roman Empire, the civil power was 
subordinate to ecclesiastical authority in this, that the 
spiritual authority not only indicated the duties of the 
rulers towards the public, but also insisted upon 
their accomplishment. Accordingly, the kings were 



CHRISTIAN SOCIETY 79 

anointed and crowned by the bishops, and took their 
oath of office upon the holy Gospel. From the days 
of Charlemagne, the emperors, on the day of their 
coronation, took the oath of fidelity to the pope, 
whereby they bound themselves to protect the Church 
of God. This mutual relation of Church and State 
gave rise to a number of characteristic laws and cus- 
toms. Thus the State, proud of the distinction of 
being the protector of that which was most sacred on 
earth, punished all crimes committed against the 
Church as though they had been committed against 
the majesty of the State. The Church, on her side, 
finding the State her greatest support, excommuni- 
cated those who revolted against the civil authority. 
Moreover, those who were excommunicated by the 
Church were, by the tact, deprived of all civil rights. 

Topical Outline 

108. The world was divided into three great 
empires. 

109. The Church obtained political rights ; the 
pope acquired temporal power ; Church and State were 
intimately connected. 

110. The relation between Church and State was 
beneficial to Doth. 

See Notes: Moslem, Lombards. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Charlemagne: "The Conversion of the Teutonic Race," by 
Mrs. Hope (B. B.). Vol. II, Ch. XXIV, "Charlemagne." 

Church and State: "History of the Catholic Church," by 
Dr. H. Brueck (B. B.). Second Epoch, Ch. II, "Estab- 
lishment of the States of the Church." 
"Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. Coler (F. D. B.). 
Ch. I, "Church and State." Ch. Ill, "The Birth of the 
Papal State." 



CHAPTER XI 

HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

From Leo III (800) to Alexander II (1061) 

Pope Leo III had sent to Charlemagne the keys 
of the confession of St. Peter, and the standard of the 
city of Rome. This he did to show that he regarded 
the Frankish king as the protector of the Holy See. 
The popes who succeeded Leo III continued this same 
policy of union with the empire. 

111. Gregory IV (827-844) was raised to the chair 
of St. Peter mainly through the influence of the secular 
nobility of Rome. But he was not consecrated until 
his election had been approved by the emperor, Louis 
the Mild. During the greater part of his pontificate, 
Gregory was involved in the quarrels between Louis 
and his royal sons; but his efforts to promote peace 
in the imperial family were unsuccessful. 

112. St. Leo IV (847-855).— On account of the 
incursions of the Saracens, who in 846 plundered St. 
Peter's and other churches, Pope St. Leo IV began 
at once to repair the churches, and the walls and 
towers that fortified the city of Rome. He enclosed 
the Vatican hill with a wall, and this portion of the 
city was then called the Leonine City. 

113. Benedict III (855-858).— After the death of 
Leo, imperial ambassadors endeavored to raise Anas- 
tasius, an excommunicated cardinal, to the papal 
throne. But the Romans elected Benedict III, who 
then received episcopal consecration. He continued 
the work of repairing the damage done to the churches 
in Rome by the Saracen raid of 846. 

114. Nicholas I (858-867).— He was one of the 
great popes of the Middle Ages. He was filled with a 
high conception of his mission : the vindication of 
Christian morality, and the defense of God's law 
against princes and dignitaries. At Rome, Nicholas 

(80) 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 81 

rebuilt and endowed several churches, and constantly 
sought to encourage religious life. His own personal 
life was guided by an earnest Christian asceticism and 
profound piety. 

115. Stephen V (885-891). — During his pontificate, 
the death of the emperor, Charles III, led to the disso- 
lution of the Carlovingian dynasty, and to the forma- 
tion of reckless factions. These frequently engaged 
in fierce and bloody conflicts. The warfare raged most 
violently in Italy, but eventually Guido of Spoleto was 
crowned emperor by the pope in 891. 

Among the various factions, the Tuscan party 
maintained the ascendancy for about fifty years. Theo- 
dora, wife of the Marquis of Tuscany, and her two 
daughters, exercised almost unlimited sway in Rome, 
interfering even with the appointments to the Apos- 
tolic See in a manner that precluded all freedom of 
election. Marozia, one of the daughters, caused her 
son to be elected pope under the name of John XI. 

116. John XII (955-964).— The imperial throne 
having been vacant for forty-six years, Pope John 
XII called the German King, Otho I, to Rome, 
and crowned him emperor in 962. Some years later 
the pope, becoming mistrustful of Otho, entered into 
secret negotiations with the Greeks and Hungarians, 
whereupon the emperor caused him to be deposed. 
Using his authority and influence, Otho succeeded in 
having a layman elected to the papal throne under 
the title of Leo VIII. As soon as Otho had left the 
city, a civil war broke out. Pope John returned, and 
Leo fled to Otho's camp. John XII died a few weeks 
later, and the Romans elected Benedict V, who, how- 
ever, had to quit the city and leave the papal throne 
to Leo, whom Otho brought back to Rome. Benedict 
V betook himself to Hamburg, where he died in the 
odor of sanctity. 

During the years that followed, the papal elec- 
tions were held at the pleasure and discretion of the 
emperors, or of the nobility, headed by the powerful 



82 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

family of the Crescentians. After a series of revolu- 
tions, Gregory V, the first German pope, was elected, 
and he was followed by Sylvester II, the first French 
pope. 

After the death of Otho III, the Count of Tusculum 
succeeded in having his son, an inexperienced youth, 
elected pope as Benedict IX. The new pope was ill- 
treated by his relative, and led a life which was not 
in accordance with his high dignity. He eventually 
resigned in favor of Sylvester III. After forty days, 
the new pope was driven from Rome, and was suc- 
ceeded by Gregory VI, who governed with energy. 
This was indeed a sad period for the Church. There 
were actually three claimants to the papal throne, 
each one being supported by a different party. King 
Henry III, however, prevented a schism by convoking 
a synod which, after compelling the three rival claim- 
ants to resign, elected Clement II. The pope con- 
ferred the imperial crown upon Henry, and a new era 
began, which brought about order and reform. 

117. St. Leo IX (1049-1054).— Leo IX was virtu- 
ous and energetic. He journeyed through Europe in 
the cause of the reformation of manners, everywhere 
rousing public opinion against the prevailing evils of 
the times, especially against simony. During his pon- 
tificate, the separation of the Greek Church from Rome 
was carried into effect by the patriarch Michael Ceru- 
larius. 

118. Nicholas II (1058-1061).— The successors of 
Leo IX were Victor II, Stephen IX, and Nicholas II. 
The latter regulated the manner of procedure in all 
future papal elections, by reserving the right of election 
exclusively to the college of cardinals. He was suc- 
ceeded by Pope Alexander II. 

119. Reflections: With regard to the misconduct 
of some of the popes during this epoch, it is but just 
to conclude: 1st, that the popes, even though they 
are infallible in matters of Faith, are not impeccable in 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 83 

their conduct ; 2nd, that if some few of the popes 
failed to give edification by their unworthy conduct, 
the fault cannot be imputed to the Church, but pri- 
marily to the temporal rulers, who interfered with the 
elections instead of allowing the Church to choose 
the popes ; 3rd, that God himself, notwithstanding 
human frailty, always governs and directs His Church. 
These scandals ought rather to strengthen than to 
shake our faith. Never was it more obvious that the 
Church was guided, not by man, but by the strong, 
overruling hand of God. Had the Church been a 
human institution, the tenth century would have been 
its destruction and its tomb ; and this remark applies 
also to other melancholy periods in her history. The 
weaknesses and the sins of the pastors of the Church 
do not compromise her Divine origin and mission. In 
times of the worst corruption there have always been 
saints eminent in holiness, and multitudes of faithful 
Christians whose lives were models of virtue, and a 
reproach to the world around them. Christians who 
were wanton and scandalous in conduct were so not 
on account of the Faith, but in spite of it. The stand- 
ard of the moral teaching of the Church remained 
unlowered, and her creed untouched. 

Even when apparently powerless, the Church was 
enabled by her inherent Divine energy to heal the 
wounds inflicted on her by the barbarian hordes of 
invaders, and to subject this new race of persecutors 
to the yoke of Christ. True it is that many years were 
needed to tame their haughty natures, and to disperse 
the darkness of their ignorance ; but the work was 
at length accomplished, and the Christendom of today 
is the monument of her triumph. Science and art still 
found a shelter among the clergy and in the monas- 
teries. The palaces of bishops and the religious 
houses became public schools, in which knowledge was 
preserved from extinction. While the nobles were 
ravaging the empire, humble monks were transcribing, 
in the quiet of their cells, those precious writings of 
antiquity which had been rescued from the hands of 
the barbarians. It was in her bosom that the treasures 



84 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

of ancient times were preserved, and in her various 
institutions that the waning light of knowledge, both 
sacred and profane, was rekindled into brilliancy. It 
is to the Catholic Church that the world, though 
unwilling to acknowledge its debt of gratitude, owes 
not only the preservation of the Faith and the Divine 
morality of the Gospel, but also the revival of secular 
literature, of science, and of the fine arts. 

Tl IPICAL < >UTLINE 

111. Gregory IV was involved in the quarrels 
between Louis and his royal sons. 

112. Leo IV built the Leonine City. 

113. Benedict III continued to repair the churches 
of Rome. 

114. Nicholas I was one of the great popes of the 
Middle Ages. 

115. The dissolution of the Carlovingian dynasty, 
during the pontificate of Stephen V, gave rise to fac- 
tions and warfare. 

116. The German emperors interfered unduly in 
the papal elections. 

117. The Greek Church separated from Rome dur- 
ing the pontificate of St. Leo IX. 

118. Papal elections were reserved to the college 
of cardinals by Pope Nicholas II. 

119. Reflections. 

See Notes: Louis the Mild, Saracens. Leonine City, 
Lothair II, Charles III, Crescentians, simony, confession of 
St. Peter. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

The Papacy: "History of the Catholic Church," by Dr. H. 
Brueck (B. B.). Second Epoch, Ch. II, Sec. 88, "The 
Popes and the Carlovingians," Sec. 89, "Condition of 
the Apostolic See." 

"Beginnings of the Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes," 
by Algr. L. Duchesne (B. B.). 

Monks: 'Pearl of Antioch." by Abbe Bayle (P. J. K.j. Ch. 
XI. "The Monks." 

Greek Church: "Alethea: at the Parting of the Ways," by 
Archdeacon Dennehey (B. B.). An Historical Tale deal- 
ing with Christian Life in Constantinople. 



CHAPTER XII 

INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

I. Constitution 

120. The Supremacy of the Pope. — During this 
period the supremacy of the popes became more and 
more manifest. They promulgated laws which were 
binding upon the entire Church, and rendered judg- 
ment in behalf of bishops who appealed to Rome. They 
erected and changed bishoprics, and deposed bishops 
and metropolitans. They also granted privileges to 
certain churches. In the ninth century the popes began 
to make use of the ban of excommunication. 

121. The Cardinals. — In the same century, the 
title of Cardinal was given to priests and deacons who 
were permanently attached to the principal parishes 
of the city of Rome. Under Pope Stephen IV, seven 
bishops within the diocese of Rome likewise received 
this title. They were called Roman Bishops. The 
cardinals formed the Senate of the Church, and were 
charged with the administration of ecclesiastical affairs 
during the vacancy of the Holy See. 

122. Bishops and Abbots. — Among the Germanic 

nations, the bishops and abbots, in consequence of 
existing institutions and of the acknowledged position 
of the secular power, were vassals of the crown and 
of the states of the empire. They often held portions 
of crown lands as fiefs, which made them vassals of the 
king. This frequently proved to be a great disad- 
vantage, owing to the undue influence which the State 
exercised in the appointment of bishops and abbots. 
Temporal princes often overstepped the limits of their 
power by recommending men of their own selection, 
while some of the noble families went so far as to force 
their children into bishoprics and abbeys, in spite of 
all protests from ecclesiastical superiors. 

(85) 



86 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

Among the evils which naturally resulted from this 
deplorable state of affairs may be mentioned the fact, 
that the temporal power of the prelates came to be 
considered as of primary importance, to which their 
spiritual dignity was a mere accessory. Moreover, the 
prelates were required to take the oath of fealty, by 
which they were obliged to serve the king in war when 
called upon, and to take part in battles, instead of ful- 
filling the duties of their vocation. 

II. Discipline and Worship 

123. Mass and Communion. — The councils of the 
ninth and tenth centuries often complained of the want 
of zeal on the part of the faithful in regard to the 
reception of Holy Communion. They found it neces- 
sary to impose upon the faithful the obligation to 
receive Holy Communion two or three times a year. 
The custom of receiving the sacrament under both 
species was discontinued, and the consecrated host 
was placed upon the tongue of the recipient and not 
upon the hand, as had been done until then. 

In the West, the Latin remained the language of 
the Mass and of the sacred liturgy. The sermon, 
which ordinarily followed the reading of the Gospel, 
was preached in the language of the people. The cele- 
bration of the Holy Sacrifice was rendered more 
solemn by the introduction of choral chanting, which 
in turn was embellished and rendered more effective 
by the accompaniment of the organ. 

124. Penances. — Secret and public penances were 
both in use at this time ; the latter, however, were 
imposed for public crimes only. The penitential works 
consisted in strict fasts, pilgrimages, bodily chastise- 
ment, or, in certain cases, in entering a convent. These 
penances were often commuted into fines of money 
to be given as alms. At times, they were shortened 
or even remitted altogether by an indulgence. 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 87 

Besides the excommunication, the Church made use 
of the interdict as a mode of public punishment. The 
interdict was inflicted on cities or entire provinces, 
whenever the rulers or inhabitants thereof were guilty 
of a great crime, and refused to do penance or render 
the satisfaction required. In such cases the Church 
refused the administration of the sacraments, and 
would not allow the celebration of Holy Mass. The 
rigor of this punishment was soon mitigated, however, 
and the Church permitted the administration of the 
Sacrament of Baptism and of the last sacraments. 

125. The Sacraments. — The synods repeatedly 
urged the duty incumbent upon parents not to postpone 
the baptism of their children, and to provide for their 
religious education. They likewise admonished the 
faithful in case of severe sickness to receive in due time 
the Viaticum and extreme unction. The law on mar- 
riage extended the impediment of relationship to the 
seventh degree. 

126. Feasts. — The number of feasts increased dur- 
ing this period. The feasts of the Immaculate Concep- 
tion and of the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin were 
celebrated in a number of places, as was also the 
patronal feast of each church. All Saints' Day was 
established by Pope Gregory IV in 840, and All Souls' 
Day, which was introduced by St. Odilon, Abbot of 
Cluny (998), became popular throughout Christendom. 
The Rosary was recited in honor of the Blessed Virgin, 
and Saturday of each week was consecrated to her 
special veneration. 

127. The Chant. — Guido of Arezzo, a monk resid- 
ing in a monastery near Ravenna, invented a method 
of representing the notes on a staff of four lines, nam- 
ing them ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, from the initial 
syllables of a hymn in honor of St. John the Baptist. 
This invention greatly facilitated the study and rendi- 
tion of the liturgical chant. 



88 internal life of the church 

Topical Outline 
I 

120. The popes exercised the rights of supremacy. 

121. The cardinals formed the Senate of the 
Church. 

122. Among the Germanic nations, bishops and 
abbots became vassals, and many evils resulted from 
this fact. 

II 

123. Various customs were introduced regarding 
the Mass. 

124. Secret and public penances were practiced, 
and the Church made use of the interdict. 

125. The synods admonished the faithful regard- 
ing the sacraments. 

126. Various feasts were instituted during this 
period. 

127. The liturgical chant was improved. 

See Notes: Excommunication, fief, vassal, abbey. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Interdict: '"Under the Ban," A Tale of the Interdict, by 
C. M. Home (B. H.). 

"The Story of the English Pope," by F. M. Steele (B. B.). 
Ch. V, "Arnold of Brescia;" Ch. VI, "The Interdict." 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SCHOOLS 

128. Under Charlemagne. — Charlemagne, who was 
as much interested in the arts and sciences as in 
good government, not only summoned to his court the 
best scholars of his time, but also issued orders to all 
the monasteries and cathedrals to erect schools, and 
even urged the parish priests to train pupils. Among 
the learned men who exercised a definite influence on 
the direction of studies was Alcuin, probably the most 
learned and able man of his day. He had long suc- 
cessfully taught both profane and sacred science in 
England, when, yielding to the earnest solicitations 
of Charlemagne, he undertook the direction of the 
Palatine School, as the school at the court was called. 

Charlemagne also provided for the education of 
youth by establishing elementary schools. He founded 
the schools of Metz and Soissons for the special study 
of the ecclesiastical chant, and sent to Rome for per- 
sons competent to teach the plain chant. In this man- 
ner he added to the reputation he had already acquired 
as an able general and a gifted statesman, the more 
important merit of having, to a great extent, promoted 
that true civilization and enlightenment which is based 
upon religion. 

129. Under His Successors. — The successors of 
Charlemagne generally protected and patronized the 
various institutions of learning, though the diffusion 
of knowledge among the nations was chiefly due to 
the zealous labors of ecclesiastical superiors. Nearly 
all the cathedrals and monasteries had schools attached 
to them, whence, in course of time, came forth scholars 
who attained great renown. The teachers themselves 
were men educated in all the knowledge of the age. 

During the tenth century, under the reign of the 
Othos in Germany, knowledge was carefully pursued 

(89) 



90 THE SCHOOLS 

by the clergy, and the many saintly bishops of that 
era eagerly promoted all manner of scientific pursuits. 
The eleventh century was the age of restoration of 
science and discipline, and literary studies were pur- 
sued with even more success than before. In Ger- 
many, the cloister schools of Fulda, Hildesheim and 
Paderborn attained a high reputation. In France, the 
school of Bee was made famous by the celebrated 
teacher Lanfranc, who afterwards labored with great 
success as Archbishop of Canterbury. In Italy, Car- 
dinal Humbert and St. Peter Damian were distin- 
guished for their great learning. 

Topical Outline 

128. Charlemagne established educational institu- 
tions. 

129. During the tenth and eleventh centuries the 
Church produced many learned men. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Charlemagne: "Peter's Rock in Mohammed's Flood," by 
T. W. Allies (B. B.). Ch. VII, "Pepin, Charlemagne." 
"Compendium of Church History," by the Sisters of 
Notre Dame (S. K. R). 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE CHURCH, THE GUARDIAN OF REVEALED DOCTRINE 

I. The Iconoclasts 

130. Controversy Respecting Images. — In the 
eighth century a question arose as to the lawfulness 
of exposing for veneration the images of Christ and 
of the saints in public places, in churches, and in 
private houses. The contest began in the East under 
the emperor Leo III, named the Isaurian from the place 
of his birth. Leo was born and nurtured in camp, and 
his ignorance was profound ; yet he indulged a childish 
fancy of becoming a reformer in matters of religion. 
He had conceived a prejudice against the use and 
veneration of images, and pronounced the Church's 
customs idolatrous. His edict, commanding the 
images of Our Lord, of the Blessed Virgin, and of the 
Saints, to be removed from the churches, excited the 
indignation of the Christian world. But neither the 
discontent of the people, nor the beautiful and ener- 
getic letter of the pope, Gregory II, nor the learned 
treatises which St. John Damascene, the greatest 
theologian of his time, composed in justification of 
the cult of images, could dissuade the emperor from 
his purpose. In one of the public places of Constanti- 
nople he burned the sacred images, and ordered the 
large crucifix, which had been put up by Constantine 
at the entrance of the palace, to be hewn down. Some 
of the faithful who interfered were put to death, along 
with others who were suspected of having lent their 
encouragement to the opposition. The pious patri- 
arch, Germanus, was driven from his see, and died in 
exile in his ninetieth year. 

Constantine V, the son and successor of Leo, per- 
secuted with savage fury those who honored sacred 
images. The persecution extended into the provinces, 
where servile governors courted the favor of the 

(91) 



92 THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 

emperor by the wanton barbarity with which they 
hunted down the faithful Catholics. 

After the death of Constantine V and of his son 
Leo IV, the sovereign power devolved upon Irene as 
regent during the minority of her son. The empress 
detested the impiety of the Iconoclasts, or breakers 
of sacred images, and wrote to Pope Adrian I, request- 
ing him to call a general council. The pope accord- 
ingly convoked the Seventh General Council in 787, 
which was the first held at Constantinople, and after- 
wards, when disturbances were occasioned by the 
soldiers, was transferred to Nicaea, where the First 
General Council had been held. The Fathers of the 
council affirmed the correct principles on which the 
veneration of images is founded, and decided that "we 
may place the figures of the holy cross, pictures or 
images of Christ, of our 'immaculate Lady,' of the 
angels and saints, in wood, stone, or other material, 
in our churches or anywhere else". The anathema 
was pronounced against the Iconoclasts, and the 
decrees of the council were signed by all the bishops 
present. Thus the sanguinary heresy was silenced 
for a time, but only to be revived later by the so-called 
Reformers of the sixteenth century. 

II. The Greek Schism 

131. The Preparation. — The Greek emperors were, 
with few exceptions, the main supporters of heresy, 
the persecutors of the faithful, and in their private 
life, the scandal of their subjects. Among the Greek 
clergy, many fell victims to pride and ambition, to 
a base and degrading servility to the temporal powers, 
and even to apostasy. In fact, the real cause and 
origin of the Greek Schism was the ambition of the 
bishops of Constantinople, manifested under various 
circumstances from the time that the city was made 
the capital of the empire. The patriarchs of Con- 
stantinople, proud of being the highest ecclesiastical 
dignitaries in the empire, next aspired to the supreme 
honors in the Church. Their ambition was moreover 



THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 93 

favored by the emperors, and by many of the bishops 
and priests as well. 

132. Its History. — During the Iconoclastic strife, 
a marked aversion towards the Holy See became 
apparent on the part of the Greek emperors, and of 
the patriarchs of Constantinople. The formal schism 
or separation, however, took place under the dissolute 
emperor Michael 111, a drunkard and buffoon, who 
left the government of the empire to Ids uncle Bardas, 
a vicious intriguer. Bardas hated the virtuous Igna- 
tius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and succeeded in 
having him banished by order of the emperor. Igna- 
tius was succeeded by Photius, a learned layman, full 
of ambition, and of a very dubious character, who, 
supported by the imperial court, assumed the patri- 
archal chair of Constantinople in 858. At first he 
sought, by flattery and bribes, to obtain recognition 
from the pope. Failing in this, he threw off the mask, 
and condemned the Roman Church as having departed 
from the faith and discipline of the Fathers. 

In 869 Pope Adrian II sent three legates to Con- 
stantinople, there to preside at the Eighth General 
Council. At this synod, Photius was excommunicated, 
and Ignatius was re-established in his position as 
patriarch. But the good understanding between Rome 
and Constantinople was not perfectly restored. 

The conflict began anew under the haughty and 
ignorant patriarch Michael Cerularius, in 1043. This 
proud prelate repeated the charges of Photius against 
Rome, and so far succeeded in deceiving and stirring up 
the people, that the revolt soon ended in the complete 
separation of the Eastern Church from the Roman 
or Western Church (1054). Ever since that unhappy 
occurrence, the popes and bishops assembled in all 
general councils have been untiring in their efforts 
to bring back the schismatics to the unity of the 
Church, and yet the gulf between the mother Church 
and her schismatical children yawns as wide and 
gloomy as ever. The same curse of imperial suprem- 



94 THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 

acy and tyranny over the Church, the same desolating 
blight brought about by the early emperors of Con- 
stantinople — which fell into the hands of the Moham- 
medan Turks in 1453 — still hovers over the unhappy 
Greek Church. 

Topical Outline 
I 

130. The Seventh General Council condemned the 
Iconoclast heresy. 

II 

131. The patriarchs of Constantinople aspired to 
the supreme honor in the Church. 

132. The Greek or Eastern Church separated from 
the Roman or Western Church in the year 1054. 

REFERENCE FOR READING 

Iconoclasts: "Peter's Rock in Mohammed's Flood," by T. 
W. Allies (B. B.). Ch. VI, "An Emperor Priest, Leo III, 
the Inconoclast." 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER D 

INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

133. The influence of Christianity during this 
period showed itself principally in the religious stamp 
it impressed upon political life, and in the gradual 
eradication of ancient practices. 

At the coronation of a king by the bishop, the 
crowned king was admonished that he held the sword 
to wield it for the honor of God, and that he was 
bound to govern his people in justice, while the people 
acknowledged that the prince held his right and dignity 
"by the grace of God". Thus also the Christian knight 
received his sword amid religious ceremonies, and was 
reminded that he was to use his weapon in the service 
and defense of the Church. 

The capitularies of Charlemagne and the laws of 
Alfred the Great were made with the co-operation of 
the clergy, and both of these codes were permeated 
with a religious spirit ; moreover, the laws of the 
Church, such as the law regulating the sanctification 
of the Lord's Day, were sanctioned and confirmed by 
the civil authorities. 

Christianity had abolished the Paganism of the 
barbarian, and had checked the progress of Moham- 
medanism, but it still had to combat those pagan 
practices which had struck deep root in the customs 
of the Germanic nations, and which were sanctioned 
by their laws and upheld by human passions. Such, 
among the Germans, was the right of revenge by 
blood, which resulted in continual feuds. As these 
evils could not be eradicated at once, the Church 
sought means to check them as much as possible. 
For this purpose she instituted the pilgrimages to the 
Holy Land, thus turning the natural activity of these 
semi-barbarous people into new channels designed to 
soften their rude natures, and to instill into their hearts 
a sense of religious feeling. 

Their feudal strifes she checked by establishing the 
Truce of God, whereby all combats were forbidden 

(95) 



96 INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

under pain of excommunication, from the beginning 
of Advent until the octave of the Epiphany, from the 
beginning of Lent until the octave of Easter, and 
throughout the year, during each week, from Wednes- 
day until the following Monday. 

By associating religion with the ancient custom of 
formally conferring arms upon youths who had 
attained the age of manhood, the Church sanctioned 
and sanctified the grand institution of Chivalry. She 
thus wisely directed the warlike instincts of the lords 
to the service of justice and of civilization. 

The Church likewise labored to abolish the ordeals, 
or so-called "judgments of God". She first stripped 
these ordeals of their heathenish character by impart- 
ing to them a religious tone, and then suppressed them 
altogether. 

The Church of the \Yest had thus, chiefly through 
her supreme head, the pope, brought the rude and 
warlike Germans from a state of barbarism into a 
condition of intellectual and moral cultivation, and 
formed them into well-organized states. The Chris- 
tian spirit pervaded the family circle and produced 
holy men and women in all the walks of life. Institu- 
tions were founded either for religious purposes, or 
for the support of the poor, the sick and the orphan. 
Finally, the prevailing spirit which manifested itself 
among the nations of the Western Roman Empire was 
one of reverence for the Church of God, and of sub- 
mission to her authority. 

The schismatical Church of the East, on the other 
hand, after its separation from Rome, had not another 
glorious page to record in history, and fell into decay, 
like a branch severed from the parent vine. 

REFERENXES FOR READING 





Truce of God: '-The Truce of God," A Tale of the Twelfth 
Century, by G. H. Miles (J. M.). 

The Guilds: "The Lion of Flanders," by Hendrick Con- 
science (J. M.). 



FOURTH PERIOD 



FROM ST. GREGORY VII TO BONIFACE VIII 
(1073-1303) 



CHAPTER XV 

INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

I. The Papacy and the Empire 

134. Struggle between the Church and the State. 

— By this title we mean to designate that prolonged 
conflict which, beginning in the days of Pope Gregory 
VII, continued between the popes and the German 
emperors during half a century, and ended so glori- 
ously for the Church and so favorably for the welfare 
of the nations. The struggle was caused partly by 
the unjust claims of kings and emperors concerning the 
"right of investiture"; partly by their abuse of power 
in regard to the election of popes, bishops, and abbots ; 
and, finally, by their resistance to the pontifical author- 
ity, whenever the oath of fidelity was demanded of 
them, or when the sentence of excommunication was 
pronounced against them. 

135. Investitures and Gregory VII. — In the begin- 
ning, the first bishops were appointed by the Apostles 
themselves. Later, the bishops were chosen by the 
assembled clergy under the direction of the neighboring 
bishops, and with the consent of the faithful. When, 
however, the nations and their rulers had become 
Christian, this right of voice in ecclesiastical elections 
was gradually wrested from the people by the more 
cunning or more able leaders and princes. As some of 
the bishops thus chosen were also princes, the German 

(97) ' 



98 INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

emperors in particular claimed the right of appointment 
and investiture, and thus many of their unworthy- 
favorites were nominated to vacant episcopal sees. It 
was Gregory VII, who first, as authorized counsellor of 
his four predecessors, and then as pope himself, com- 
bated most vigorously this dangerous abuse. However, 
it was only after many struggles that a settlement was 
effected at the Concordat of Worms (1122) between 
Pope Calixtus II and Henry V of Germany. The free 
election of bishops was then guaranteed to the chap- 
ters of the cathedrals, though the rulers, as the repre- 
sentatives of the people, were permitted to participate 
in the election. In order to guard against the appoint- 
ment of unworthy persons, the pope always reserved 
to himself the right of confirming or rejecting the 
choice made by the electors. 

II. The Crusades (1096-1273) 

136. Moslem Conquests. — While the conflict be- 
tween the Church and the State was engaging the 
attention of the spiritual and the temporal authorities, 
another struggle was going on between civilization 
and barbarism, between Christianity and Mohamme- 
danism : Christian Europe rose in arms to wrest from 
the infidel the desecrated sepulchre of the Divine 
Savior. The Arabs had pushed their conquests to the 
very gates of Constantinople ; Egypt and other por- 
tions of Africa were subject to their rule ; they had 
established extensive settlements in Spain ; and, had 
not Providence raised up Charles Martel at the oppor- 
tune moment to check Moslem aggressiveness at the 
decisive battle of Tours (732), they would have become 
masters of all Europe. In the eleventh century the 
Turks, a warlike tribe from Turkestan, supplanted the 
Arab race, took Jerusalem, and subjected the Christian 
inhabitants and the numerous pilgrims from all parts 
of the world to the most revolting cruelties (1077). 

137. Nature and Origin of the Crusades. — To 

deliver the Holy Places from Mohammedan tyranny, 



INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 99 

thousands of chivalrous Christians pledged themselves 
by vow to engage in those extensive military expedi- 
tions to the East, known as the Crusades. The Cru- 
sades, having been undertaken at the request and 
under the direction of various popes, their history is 
intimately connected with that of the Church. The 
idea originated in the eleventh century, when there 
were as yet no organized states in Europe, and when 
the pope was the only potentate in a position to know 
and understand the common interests of Christendom. 
When the Turks, emboldened by success, threatened to 
invade Europe, Pope Urban II entreated the Chris- 
tians of the West to combine in one great movement 
to check the progress of Mohammedan power. The 
Christian world responded to the appeal of the sov- 
ereign pontiff, and the result was the establishment of 
the Christian states in the East. 

138. History of the Crusades. — At the Council of 
Clermont, convoked by Urban II in 1095, the first 
crusade was decided upon. Zealous preachers roused 
the faithful in various parts of Europe, who soon pro- 
ceeded to the Holy Land in four large armies. Jeru- 
salem was taken (1099), and became the capital of a 
Christian kingdom which lasted nearly a hundred 
years. Godfrey de Bouillon, the gallant leader of the 
crusade, was appointed king. To defend this newly 
established kingdom, two orders of knighthood, the 
Hospitallers and the Templars, sprang into existence. 
Nevertheless, surrounded as they were by enemies, 
the Christians of the East were soon obliged to appeal 
for aid to their brethren in the West. 

The second crusade was preached in 1147 by St. 
Bernard, the abbot of Clairvaux, under the direction 
of Pope Eugene III. Louis VII of France and Con- 
rad III of Germany departed for Palestine at the head 
of their armies ; but, owing mainly to the treachery 
of their Grecian allies, this crusade proved a disastrous 
failure. 



100 INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

The third crusade, led by the rulers of Germany, 
France, and England, left for the East in 1189. Richard 
the Lion-hearted secured from Saladin, the Sultan of 
Egypt, a part of the coast from Tyre to Joppa, and 
the liberty to visit Jerusalem. 

The fourth crusade was undertaken in 1197 by the 
German Emperor Henry VI. The Germans made a 
truce with the Saracens, and secured their future 
influence in Palestine by the creation of the Order of 
the Teutonic Knights. 

During this crusade a great many French knights 
took the cross, and, without consulting the pope, Inno- 
cent III, captured Constantinople, and founded the 
Latin or Frankish Empire, which lasted fifty-seven 
years (1204-1261). Far from benefiting the Christians 
in the East, this conquest served but to increase the 
animosity of the Greeks towards the Latins, a fact that 
proved one of the chief obstacles to the success of the 
Crusades in general. 

John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, the leader of 
the armies in the fifth crusade, began operations in 
Egypt, and captured Damietta. Later, however, he 
had to surrender the city to secure the safe retreat of 
the Christian army (1221). 

The sixth crusade was led by Frederick II of Ger- 
many (1228). He concluded the Treaty of Jaffa with 
the Sultan of Egypt. By the terms of the treaty, Jeru- 
salem, Bethlehem and Nazareth were restored to the 
Christians. 

The seventh and the eighth crusades were led by 
St. Louis IX, King of France, who became the inno- 
cent victim of atonement for the sins of the less sincere 
crusaders. At Tunis, a dreadful pestilence broke out 
in the ranks of the crusaders and attacked the king 
himself. He displayed the magnanimity of a truly 
Christian hero, not permitting one word of complaint 
to fall from his lips. He wished to die on a bed of 
ashes, and edified the wholy army by his faith and 
piety. His son Philip, having concluded a treaty of 



INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 101 

peace with the Turks, returned to France,- taking with 
him the body of the holy king. 

Thus ended the last of the Eastern Crusades. The 
Christians gradually lost all their conquests in the 
East, and the Moslems have ever since retained pos- 
session of the Holy Places. 

139. Results of the Crusades.— Although the Cru- 
sades failed to attain their ultimate object, the acquisi- 
tion of the Holy Places in the East, they nevertheless 
produced lasting and beneficial results. From a polit- 
ical and social point of view they brought about the 
fusion of the various Christian nations. Kings were 
enabled to enroll under their own standards all the 
military forces of their realm, thereby securing national 
unity. The serfs that took the cross were emancipated 
by the fact, and were permitted to sell the lands they 
held. This led the way to the acquisition and sale 
of property. The nobility advanced to military honors, 
and chivalry flourished in all its splendor. Naviga- 
tion, commerce and agriculture received a new impetus, 
and the industries and arts made wonderful progress. 
Moreover, the development of general culture in the 
West was the direct result of these holy wars. 

From a religious point of view, the Crusades 
proved successful mainly in preventing Islamism from 
overrunning Europe. They thus saved Europe to 
Christianity, and gave pre-eminence to the most sacred 
of all interests — religion. In fact, we see in the Cru- 
sades one of the most beautiful movements that piety, 
faith and devotedness to a sacred cause have ever 
inspired. They furnished occasion for the expiation 
of sin and of public scandals, and gave birth to the 
religious orders of knighthood, which presented to the 
world admirable examples of bravery, nobility and 
devotedness. But the most noteworthy of all the 
results of the Crusades was the interior awakening of 
souls toward Christ and His Kingdom — a spiritual 
regeneration of Christian nations and their leaders, 



102 INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

brought about by familiar contact with the life and 
death of Christ, the Savior of mankind. 

140. Other Crusades. — Besides the Crusades to 
the East, there were other wars denominated crusades, 
less prominent, however, than those expressly under- 
taken for the recovery of the Holy Places. Since the 
Middle Ages, the term crusade has been extended to 
include all wars waged in consequence of a vow, and 
directed against infidels, be they Moslems, pagans, 
heretics, or those under the ban of excommunication. 
The wars of the Spaniards against the Moors were a 
continual crusade from the eleventh to the sixteenth 
century. In the north of Europe, crusades were 
organized against the Prussians and the Lithuanians. 
The extermination of the Albigensian heresy was 
due to a crusade. And in the thirteenth century the 
popes preached crusades against John Lackland of 
England and Frederick II of Germany, both of whom 
had been excommunicated. 

Topical Outline 
I 

134. Lay investiture caused the struggle between 
Church and State. 

135. The Concordat of Worms secured the free 
election of bishops. 

II 

136. Moslem aggressiveness gave rise to the Cru- 
sades. 

137. The Crusades were undertaken for religious 
and for social motives. 

138. The Crusades comprised eight principal expe- 
ditions. 

139. The Crusades produced beneficial results. 

140. Other crusades were organized against infi- 
dels. 

See Notes: Investiture, Charles Martel, Clairvaux, Moor3. 



INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 103 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

France: "Queens and Princesses of France,'' by George 
White, M. C. P. (J. M.). P. 39, "Blanche of Castile;" 
P. 49, "Margaret, Queen of St. Louis." 

Crusades: "Tancred, Prince of Tiberias," (J. M.). Ch. IV, 
"Peter the Hermit." 
"Tales of the Crusades" (B. B.). 

"The Truce of God," a tale of the XI Century, by G. H. 
Miles (J. M.). 

"Adelmar the Templar," from the French (P. J. K.). 
"The Old Chest," by Anna T. Sadlier (P. J. K.). Ch. 
VI, "The Pilgrim, X Century;" Ch. VII, "The Church 
Builder, XI Century;" Ch. VIII, "The Crusader, XII 
Century." 

"The Middle Ages," by Rev. T. J. Shahan (B. B.). P. 
355, "The Results of the Crusades." 

Gregory VII: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. 
Coler (F. D. B.). Ch. V, "Gregory, the Politician." 
"The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries," by Dr. James J. 
Walsh (C. S. S. P.). Ch. XVIII, "Louis, the Monarch." 



CHAPTER XVI 

INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

I. Constitution 

141. The Pope, the Sovereign Pontiff.— During 
this period the Church had acquired her freedom, and 
with it, the supreme power in society. The title of 
sovereign pontiff was henceforth conceded to desig- 
nate exclusively the supreme head of the Church. 
Decisions, which heretofore had been considered to 
fall within the jurisdiction of the bishops, were 
reserved to the Holy See. The confirmation of epis- 
copal elections became the sole right of the pope, 
whilst his jurisdiction over temporal sovereigns was 
real and effective. At times the pope sent his legates 
or nuncios to the various countries to treat on impor- 
tant ecclesiastical affairs. Finally, the person of the 
sovereign pontiff was surrounded by a ceremonial of 
greater pomp and solemnity. The tiara, with its triple 
crown, became the sign of his supreme power. 

142. The Cardinals.— After the Decretal of Pope 
Alexander III at the Third Lateran Council (1179), 
the election of the pope and the government of the 
Church, during the vacancy of the Apostolic See, 
passed exclusively into the hands of the cardinals. 

Chief among the insignia of the cardinals is the red 
hat. They are further distinguished by their scarlet 
robes, and wear a ring with a sapphire stone. 

143. Bishops, "in partibus infidelium". — During 
the time that Islamism was making rapid progress in 
the East, many bishops were forced to abandon their 
sees, and to take refuge in Europe. Upon their 
decease, other bishops were consecrated as their suc- 
cessors. These prelates, holding the titles of bishop- 
rics that no longer existed, became auxiliaries to 
bishops of larger sees in Europe, and were known 
under the title of bishops "in partibus infidelium", 

(104) 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 105 

an expression meaning "in the lands of the unbe- 
lievers". At present, they are designated as titular 
bishops. 

II. Discipline and Worship 

144. Councils. — Six ecumenical councils were held 
during this period. The First Lateran Council, held 
at Rome in 1123 under Pope Callistus II, abolished 
the right of investiture claimed by lay princes, and 
dealt with church discipline and the recovery of the 
Holy Land from the infidels. The Second Lateran 
Council was called by Innocent II in 1139. The Third 
Lateran Council under Pope Alexander III condemned 
the Albigenses and the Waldenses, and issued numer- 
ous decrees for the reformation of morals. Pope 
Innocent III convened what is regarded as the most 
important council of the Middle Ages, the Fourth 
Lateran (1215), which published seventy reformatory 
decrees. The First Council of Lyons, convened by 
Innocent IV (1245), directed the crusades of St. Louis. 
The Second Council of Lyons (1274), the last of this 
period, was convened by Pope Gregory X to effect a 
reunion of the Greek Church with Rome, and to lay 
down the rules governing papal elections. 

145. Canon Law. — Gratian, a learned monk and 
teacher at Bologna, Italy, is the true founder of canon 
law. He was the first to collect and to arrange 
methodically the numerous laws and decrees of the 
popes and of the various councils. With the approval 
of the Church, these laws were published by him in 
a book entitled Decretum, which appeared about the 
year 1140. 

In 1230 Pope Gregory IX commissioned St. Ray- 
mond of Penafort, a learned Dominican monk, to 
re-arrange and to codify the canons of the Church. 
The pope announced the new publication in 1231, and 
commanded that the Decretals edited by St. Raymond 
should be considered authoritative, and that they 
should supersede all others used in the schools for 
the study of canon law. 



106 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

146. The Sacraments. — In the thirteenth century, 
the term sacrament, which until then had been applied 
to various religious rites, was reserved to designate 
only the seven sacraments properly so called. 

(a) Baptism. — Baptism by infusion, in which form 
the sacrament had been administered mainly to the 
infirm, came into common use during the thirteenth 
century, and gradually prevailed in the Western 
Church. The Orientals still retain immersion. 

(b) Holy Eucharist. — About the same time, the 
Holy Eucharist was administered under the form of 
bread only, and infants were no longer admitted to 
the reception of the sacrament until they had attained 
the age of reason. In order to refute the heresy of 
Berengarius, the Fourth Lateran Council employed 
the term transubstantiation, thereby exactly express- 
ing the doctrine of the Church that the substance of 
the bread is changed into the substance of the body 
of Christ by the words of consecration. As a protest 
against the false teaching of this same heresiarch, the 
elevation of the consecrated host at Mass was intro- 
duced, along with other exterior marks of homage. As 
the faithful were gradually growing very lax in the 
reception of the Holy Eucharist, the Fourth Lateran 
Council likewise decreed the obligation of communicat- 
ing at least once a year, and that during the paschal 
season. 

(c) Penance. — This same Council of the Lateran 
also prescribed confession in one's own parish church 
at least once a year. Among the penances imposed 
during this period for grave offenses, the Church often 
required the penitent to make a vow to engage in the 
Crusades, or at least to equip a soldier for that purpose. 

(d) Matrimony. — Secret marriages were forbidden 
under the severest penalties by various councils. 
Solemn marriages were forbidden during Lent and 
Advent, and within the octave of Christmas. 

147. Feasts, Prayers, and the Veneration of the 
Saints. — The principal feasts instituted by the Church 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 107 

during this fourth period were those in honor of the 
Blessed Sacrament and of the Holy Trinity. The 
Rosary became one of the most popular devotions. 
The Dominican and Franciscan orders labored inces- 
santly to spread the devotion to the Holy Mother of 
God. 

The veneration of the saints and of their relics 
received a great impetus, and manifested itself prin- 
cipally in frequent pilgrimages to their numerous 
shrines. Many of these were costly structures erected 
by the returning crusaders as shrines for the relics they 
brought with them from the Holy Land. 

148. The Religious Drama. — During this period, 
the dramatic representation of the Passion and of the 
Resurrection of Our Lord was added to the ceremonies 
of Divine worship, for purposes of instruction and 
edification. In the thirteenth century, however, this 
was no longer permitted in the churches, owing to the 
difficulty of obtaining suitable actors, and to the want 
of respect for the holy place, too often occasioned by 
these representations. Moreover, the dramatic per- 
formances, also styled Mysteries, soon ceased to be a 
part of the actual services of the Church. The lan- 
guage of the people was substituted for the Latin at 
these dramas, and they soon lost their religious char- 
acter altogether. 

III. Christian Art 

149. Architecture. — Catholic Christianity, during 
the thousand years of the Middle Ages, dominated 
fully and freely the life and customs, the genius and 
art of mankind, principally in Europe. This is plainly 
shown in the permanent public monuments erected by 
past generations, to express those high ideals and 
exalted aspirations that a Divine religion alone could 
inspire. Catholicism dominated the Middle Ages as a 
religion, and the natural monuments of a religion are 
its temples. Divine in its origin, sublime and trans- 
cendent in its doctrine and in its revelation, the Cath- 
olic Church raised the human mind to heights never 



108 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

attained by pagan Greece or Rome. Thus it was that 
man designed with love-inspired genius, and executed 
with patient toil, those grandest monuments of all 
ages — the Catholic cathedrals. 

150. Various Styles of Architecture. — The Roman- 
esque style, evolved from the old Roman basilica, was 
developed from the tenth to the twelfth century. Its 
characteristics were the vaulted ceiling and the round- 
arched windows and portals. The famous cathedrals 
of Mainz, Speyer and Worms are models of this 
style. The Romanesque gradually developed into the 
incomparable Gothic style. It was in the adornment 
of Europe's magnificent Gothic cathedrals that the arts 
of painting and sculpture were perfected side by side. 
In fact, the great triumphs of painting and sculpture in 
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were only the 
flowering of the good seed planted in the twelfth and 
thirteenth. 

Topical Outline 
I 

141. During the fourth period the pope exercised 
supreme power over the Church and society. 

142. The rights and the apparel of the cardinals 
were determined. 

143. Many Eastern bishops fled from the Moham- 
medans, and took refuge in Europe. 

II 

144. Six ecumenical councils were held during this 
period. 

145. The canons of the Church were codified by 
Gratian and St. Raymond of Penafort. 

146. The Church made wise regulations pertain- 
ing to the Mass and to the sacraments. 

147. Several feasts were instituted and pilgrimages 
were multiplied. 

148. The religious drama was introduced by the 
Church. 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 109 

III 

149. The cathedrals were the natural monuments 
of religion. 

150. The Romanesque and Gothic were the styles 
of architecture developed during the fourth period. 

See Notes: Legate, nuncio, tiara, Berengarius, octave. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Sculpture and Architecture: "The Genius of Christianity," 
by Chateaubriand (J. M.). Part III, Bk. I, Chs. V and VI. 

Sacraments: "Catholic Worship, or the Sacraments, Cere- 
monies, and Festivals of the Church," by Rev. O. Gisler 
(B. B.). 

Feasts: "The Memorable Feasts, Fasts, and Other Annual 
Observances of the Catholic Church," by Alban Butler, 
D. D. (P. J. K.). 

Christian Art: "The Middle Ages," by Rev. T. J. Shahan 
(B. B.). P. 311, "The Cathedral Builders of Medieval 
Europe." 

"The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries," by Dr. James J. 
Walsh (C. S. S. P.). Ch. VII, "Arts and Crafts;" Ch. VIII, 
"Great Origins in Painting;" Ch. XV, "Origin of the 
Drama;" Ch. XVI, "Gothic Architecture and Art." 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 

151. Monastic Life. — During the fourth period, 
religious life made rapid progress. Great numbers of 
the faithful presented themselves for admission into 
the cloisters. Monasticism, thus extended, took an 
active part in the life of the Church. Numerous relig- 
ious reforms, brought about by Pope Gregory VII, 
owed their success in great measure to the active 
and zealous co-operation of the Benedictine monks of 
Cluny. The mendicant orders likewise rendered most 
distinguished service to the papacy. 

152. The Mendicant Orders. — Most of the earlier 
orders founded during this period adopted the rule 
of St. Benedict, while others followed the rules laid 
down by St. Augustine. These orders gave to the 
Church most eminent popes and bishops, and, to the 
world at large, the most distinguished men in every 
branch of knowledge, of science and of art. In 1209 
St. Francis of Assisi founded the first great mendicant 
order, known as the Order of Friars Minor, or Fran- 
ciscans, and in 1215 St. Dominic established the Order 
of Friars Preachers, or Dominicans. In these mendi- 
cant orders, the practice of poverty was so strict, that 
not only the monks individually, but even the monas- 
teries themselves could not possess anything beyond 
what was necessary for subsistence ; and as for their 
means of support, they were obliged to rely on the 
generosity of the faithful. The religious of these 
orders were destined to perform the functions of pas- 
tors and of missionaries of the people in a more prac- 
tical manner than had been the case with the monks 
of other orders. 

153. The Military Orders. — The orders of knight- 
hood, or military orders, called into existence in conse- 
quence of the Crusades, combined the obligations of 
the monastic life with the occupations of the military 

(HO) 



THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 111 

service. They protected the pilgrims who visited the 
sacred shrines of Palestine from the oppression of 
the infidel, and its members vowed to defend the cause 
of Christianity in the East. 

154. Organization of Monasteries. — The abbot was 
the general superior of all the monasteries founded 
under one rule. The prior was concerned with the 
spiritual affairs of the monastery, while temporal mat- 
ters were managed by the steward or treasurer. Other 
functionaries were : the almoner, the sacristan, the 
superintendent of archives, the librarian, the principal 
of the schools, and the collector of alms. 

The dependents of convents were : the servitors, 
who held possessions or fiefs, and were the armed 
defenders of the convent ; the land-holders, who paid 
an annual revenue ; and, lastly, the laborers in the 
fields and vineyards, artisans, and tradesmen of vari- 
ous kinds. 

155. Religious Orders in General. — The study of 
the religious orders founded during this great Age of 
Faith, as the Middle Ages may be justly called, bears 
out this important fact redounding to the glory of 
the Church of God : there is no want in society for 
which the Catholic Church, by the institution of some 
particular religious order, has not provided a remedy. 
Thus the Dominicans furnished the learned preachers 
and doctors of theology ; the Franciscans preached the 
word of God to the humble and lowly ; the Cistercians 
were the negotiators of peace, the ambassadors and 
counsellors of kings. The monks of Cluny and of the 
Chartreuse were the students and the promoters of 
science in the monasteries ; the Franciscans and 
Dominicans, in the universities. Piety and mysticism 
were fostered by the Carthusians. The slaves were 
redeemed by the Trinitarians ; agriculture was 
improved and developed by the Cistercians, the monks 
of Cluny, and the Carthusians; whilst Christian soci- 
ety at large was defended and protected by the 
Knights Hospitallers of St. John, the Knights Tern- 



112 THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 

plars, and the Teutonic Knights, who, moreover, har- 
bored the pilgrim, and nursed the sick and the aged. 
The Carmelites were founded in the twelfth century. 
They contributed greatly towards spreading devotion 
to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Having been driven from 
Mt. Carmel by the Saracens, these hermits came to 
Europe in the thirteenth century, and founded numer- 
ous cloisters both for monks and for nuns. To their 
sixth general superior, Simon Stock, an Englishman, 
is ascribed the propagation of the devotion of the 
scapular. The Servites of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
and the Brethren of St. Mary of Mt. Olivet, were also 
established about this time. 

Topical Outline 

151. The religious orders extended their influence 
in the Church. 

152. The members of the mendicant orders became 
teachers in the universities, and pastors and mission- 
aries of the people. 

153. The military orders combined the obliga- 
tions of the monastic and of the military life. 

154. The monasteries were well organized. 

155. The different religious orders supplied the 
various needs of Christian society. 

See Notes: Cluny, archives, Cistercians, Chartreuse, 
Premonstratensians, Trinitarians. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Military Orders: '"The Genius of Christianity," by Chateau- 
briand (J. M.). Part IV, Bk. V, Chs. I to IV. 
"Knights of St. John," by A. T. Drane (B. B.). 

Cistercians: "The Cistercian Order, Its Object, Its Rule," 
by a Secular Priest (J. M.). 

Blessed Virgin: "Veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
Her Feasts. Prayers, Religous Orders, and Sodalities," 
by Rev. B. Rohner, O. S. B. (B. B.). 

"Our Lady's Lutenist and Other Stories of the Bright 
Ages," by Rev. David Bearne, S. J. (B. B.). "St. Simon 
Stock," P.. 112; "Titian," P. 105. 



THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 113 

Mendicant Orders: "St. Francis of Assisi, Social Reformer," 
by Leo L. Dubois, S. M. (B. B.). Part III, Ch. IV, 
"Individual Reform." 

"St. Anthony of Padua," by C. M. Antony (L. G.). Ch. 
II, "The First Franciscan Martyrs." 

"The Mirror of Perfection," Being a Record of St. 
Francis of Assisi, Ascribed to his Companion, Brother 
Leo of Assisi. Translated by Constance, Countess De 
La Warr (B. B.), 

"The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries," by Dr. James J. 
Walsh (C. S. S. P.). Ch. XVI, "Francis, the Saint;" 
"St. Clare and the Second Order." Ch. XXI, "City Hos- 
pitals — Organized Charity." 

"The Life of St. Dominic," by Augusta T. Drane (B. B.). 
Part II, "The Dominican Order." 

"The Life and Legend of the Lady Saint Clare," Found- 
ress of the Second Order of Franciscans, or the Poor 
Clares. By Mrs. Reginal Balfour (L. G.). 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE CHURCH, THE GUARDIAN OF REVEALED DOCTRINE 

I. Heresies 

156. The Albigenses. — (a) Origin. — Under the 
pretext of restoring Christianity to its original form, 
these heretics militated against the Church, which, as 
they claimed, was vitiated by riches. They appeared 
in Southern France in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
turies. On account of their pretensions to virtue, they 
were sometimes called Purists, though the name 
Albigenses, given them by the Council of Tours (1163), 
prevailed, and was for a long time applied to all the 
heretics of Southern France. The city of Albi was 
their principal stronghold. 

(b) False Doctrine. — The Albigenses asserted the 
co-existence of two principles : the one good, who 
created the spiritual world, and the other bad, the 
source of all evil. The latter created the human body, 
and is the author of all sin. The former created human 
souls, but the bad principle imprisoned them in mate- 
rial bodies. They taught that this earth is the only 
hell extant for the soul, and that punishment is not 
everlasting. Hence they regarded the liberation of the 
soul from its captivity in the body as the true end 
of our being, and held that suicide was, therefore, 
commendable. Self-destruction was practiced among 
them, generally by way of starvation. They denied 
the existence of purgatory and the resurrection of the 
body, but they believed in the transmigration of the 
soul instead. 

(c) History. — The condemnation of the Albigenses 
by several councils did not prevent the spread of the 
heresy. Pope Eugene III sent a legate, whose efforts 
were seconded by St. Bernard ; but both failed to pro- 
duce any lasting effect. The Third Lateran Council 
(1179) issued a summons to use force against those 
heretics who were plundering and devastating Albi, 

(114) 



THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 115 

Toulouse, and the vicinity. Finally, Innocent III 
ordered a crusade to be undertaken against them. The 
Council of Toulouse (1229) eventually entrusted the 
Inquisition with the suppression of Albigensianism, 
so that it practically disappeared about the end of the 
fourteenth century. 

157. The Waldenses. — (a) Origin. — The heresy 
of the Waldenses dates from the twelfth century. It 
was originated by Waldes, a rich merchant of Lyons. 
Having resolved to practice the evangelical counsels 
in all their perfection, he left his wife, distributed his 
fortune, and went about preaching penance. 

(b) False Doctrine. — Waldes and his disciples 
insisted that the Bible, which was for them the only 
source of faith, demanded the practice of absolute 
poverty. They considered the pope as the promoter 
of all errors, and denied the doctrines regarding pur- 
gatory and indulgences. With the exception of the 
Holy Eucharist, they rejected all the sacraments. They 
attacked both the civil and the ecclesiastical authori- 
ties. 

(c) History — The heresy of the Waldenses was 
condemned by Pope Lucius III in 1184. Some of these 
heretics then united with the Albigenses, and adopted 
their errors. Having spread to various parts of 
Europe, many made common cause with the Hussites, 
and eventually identified themselves with the Protest- 
ants of the sixteenth century. 

II. The Inquisition 

158. Definition. — In the language of the Church, 
the term inquisition is used to designate an investiga- 
tion made by competent authority in regard to a crime, 
pre-eminently that of heresy. By virtue of a Divine 
right, resulting from their office, the bishops of the 
Church are commissioned to bring back to the fold 
those who have been led astray, to prevent the dis- 
semination of error, and to suppress it, if possible, 
even by the application of punishments determined 
by the Church. This duty is so sacred that the Roman 



116 THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 

Congregation of the Inquisition is called the Holy 
Office. Thus, at all times, the bishops were the law- 
fully appointed inquisitors in their respective dioceses. 
At the time of the terrible heresy of the Albigenses, 
however, this diocesan inquisition proved inefficient, 
so that Pope Innocent III, at the beginning of the 
thirteenth century, established a supreme and universal 
inquisition, under the immediate direction of the pope. 

159. The Part Taken by the Church.— Long before 
the establishment of the Inquisition by the pope, the 
custom of punishing with exile or" death those who 
obstinately persisted in spreading heretical doctrines 
had prevailed in Europe. It was generally conceded 
that the welfare of society demanded such stringent 
measures. In 1184 Pope Lucius III agreed with the 
Emperor Frederick I to send investigators or inquisi- 
tors into those parts of the country suspected of har- 
boring heretical teachers, in order to hand over the 
guilty parties to the secular powers. After the assas- 
sination of the papal legate, Peter of Castelnau, by 
the Albigenses, the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) 
decreed rigorous measures against the disorders which 
were daily becoming more menacing, and ordered the 
bishops to bring the guilty ones to justice. The Coun- 
cil of Toulouse (1229) decreed that the bishops should 
authorize a clergyman and several laymen in every 
parish to denounce those guilty of heresy. Pope Greg- 
ory IX appointed the Dominicans papal inquisitors. 
They were to examine all those accused of heresy, 
and simply pronounce them either guilty or innocent of 
the accusation ; after which the guilty were delivered 
to the secular tribunal with the usual formula: "Let 
their lives be spared ; let them not be put to death." 
The judgments pronounced against the guilty by the 
secular power were : confiscation of property, brand- 
ing, life-imprisonment, or death at the stake. The 
popes in general recommended moderation in these 
judgments, and leniency in their execution, and hence 
the Church cannot be held responsible for occasional 
errors and individual acts of cruelty. 



THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 117 

160. History. — (a) In Spain. — Complying with the 
request of James I, King of Aragon, Pope Gregory IX 
instructed the bishops to examine and to punish here- 
tics in their dioceses. This inquisition was confided 
to the Dominicans and Franciscans as early as 1237; 
but it attained its fullest development only during the 
reign of Ferdinand the Catholic and Isabella, when 
the Catholic Faith was endangered by pseudo-con- 
verts from Judaism and Mohammedanism. In 1478 
Sixtus IV empowered the Catholic sovereigns to set 
up the Inquisition. Sixtus urged upon the inquisitors 
the requirements of justice and of humanity in the 
punishments imposed upon the guilty. Under Philip 
II, the Inquisition revived with increased severity, 
owing to the spread of Protestantism, which threat- 
ened the political destruction of Spain. As a result, 
Spain was spared the bloody religious wars which 
devastated the other countries of Europe at this time. 

(b) In Other Countries. — The chief scene of the 
Inquisition's activity was Central and Southern 
Europe. It was introduced in the Netherlands with 
the Spanish domination under the Duke of Alva, while 
in Northern France it was little known. On the 
other hand, the Inquisition weighed heavily on those 
countries wherein sectarianism prevailed, such as 
Italy, Southern France and Germany. 

161. The Procedure. — On the whole, the Inquisi- 
tion was humanely conducted. After being cited 
before the tribunal by the inquisitors, the accused was 
allowed three days wherein to make his avowal. If 
he showed signs of repentance, he was pardoned and 
released. The most persuasive means were employed 
to effect the avowal of the guilty. Tortures were 
regarded not as a mode of punishment, but merely as 
a means of eliciting the truth. They were not orig- 
inally included in the inquisitorial procedure, but were 
introduced twenty years later. They were to be applied 
only once, without however mutilating the condemned 
person, or imperiling his life. 



118 THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 

162. Justification. — The Church did not take the 
initiative in punishing obstinate heretics in the Middle 
Ages, although, like any other well-organized govern- 
ment, it had the incontestable right to act rigorously 
against its rebellious members. The kings and 
emperors first led the way, and the Church reluctantly 
found itself obliged to adopt similar severe measures. 

To form a correct judgment of the Inquisition, we 
must consider it as an institution evoked by the cus- 
toms and notions of the times. In the twelfth and 
thirteenth centuries, society was founded upon the 
Catholic Faith. Every attack directed against the 
beliefs of the Church imperiled the very foundations 
of the social organization. Considered in this light, 
the Inquisition will prove to have been a necessary 
instrument in the hands of authority for pursuing the 
guilty, and for suppressing such doctrines as were 
subversive of the social order as it existed in those 
days. It was, therefore, the natural outcome of the 
needs and ideas of the epoch that witnessed its exist- 
ence. In fact, the inquisitorial tribunals of France and 
Spain were the first to abolish the rack and torture, 
long before the civil courts could be induced to follow 
their lead. 

The papal incumbents during this period always 
endeavored to lessen the rigors of the inquisitorial 
action in various countries, and they were ever ready 
to receive those who appealed to them. They fre- 
quently pardoned the condemned, or at least mitigated 
the severity of the sentence, and imposed severe pen- 
alties upon the unjust accuser and the false witness. 

163. Results. — Though the Inquisition may have 
given rise to a number of deplorable abuses, it is none 
the less true that the ensuing good results far out- 
weighed the evils that the spirit of the times made 
possible. During the first period of its existence, the 
Inquisition maintained the religious unity of Europe, 
prevented the dangerous tenets of the Albigensian and 
Waldensian heretics from leavening society, and 



THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 119 

thereby rendered invaluable service to the Church and 
to Christian civilization. At a later date it stemmed 
the inroads of Protestantism into Italy, thereby saving 
this country from the prolonged devastating wars that 
followed in the wake of Protestantism. The Spanish 
Inquisition proved an invaluable asset to the country, 
not only in presenting an impassable barrier to this 
new form of barbarism, whose martial tread blighted 
the progress of so many fair provinces of Europe, but it 
incidentally prepared the way for that most flourishing 
era of literature and science which added so much to 
the glory of the Iberian peninsula during the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries. 

Topical Outline 
I 

156. The Albigensian heresy afflicted the Church 
during the thirteenth century. 

157. The Waldenses eventually united with other 
sects. 

II 

158. The bishops were the lawfully appointed 
inquisitors. 

159. The Dominicans were commissioned to exam- 
ine heretics, and the guilty were submitted to the 
secular tribunals. 

160. Introduced by Ferdinand and Isabella into 
Spain, the Inquisition was soon adopted by other 
countries. 

161. Those who retracted were pardoned, tortures 
being resorted to only in case of necessity. 

162. The tribunals of the Inquisition conformed 
to the customs of the times. 

163. The good results greatly outbalanced the 
evils resulting from the Inquisition. 

See Notes: Holy Office, Frederick I, Philip II, Duke of 
Alva. 



120 THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Albigenses: "St. Anthony," by Rev. Thomas Ward (B. B.). 
Ch. V, "St. Anthony and the Albigenses." 
"St. Anthony of Padua," by C. M. Antony (L. G.). 
"Life of St. Dominic," by Augusta T. Drane (B. B.). 
Part I, Ch. Ill, "Labors among the Albigenses." Ch. VI, 
Simon de Montfort." 

Moors in Spain: "The Spanish Cavaliers," by Mrs. J. Sadlier 
(P. J. K.). 

Inquisition: "History of the Catholic Church," by Dr. H. 
Brueck (B. B.). Vol. II, P. 103, "Ecclesiastical and 
Spanish Inquisition." 

"St. Anthony of Padua," by C. M. Antony (L. G.). Preface, 
etc.. P. VIII, by Rev. R. H. Benson. 
"The Inquisition," by the Abbe Vancard. Translated 
by the Rev. B. L. Conway, C. S. P. (L. G.). 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER E 

THE CHURCH AND SACRED SCIENCE 

164. Schools and Universities. — During the twelfth 
century the cathedral and monastic schools increased 
rapidly in numbers and in efficiency, and produced 
many erudite scholars. The reformatory measures 
inaugurated by Gregory VII for the re-awakening of 
the religious spirit, gave, at the same time, a new 
impetus to the elevation and advancement of learning. 
Many of the schools attained an enviable reputation 
for scholarship. 

The most famous universities at this time were 
those of Paris and Bologna, the former making theol- 
ogy a specialty, the latter jurisprudence. 

The popes bestowed special care on the higher 
institutions of learning, exercising a paternal supervi- 
sion over them through the medium of their repre- 
sentative, the chancellor of the university. Far from 
being the enemies of intellectual progress, as Protes- 
tant writers frequently assert, the popes proved them- 
selves the true patrons of learning by incorporating 
ecclesiastical benefices with the universities, thereby 
permanently providing for the support of the profes- 
sors. They likewise conferred great privileges upon 
teachers and students, and in other ways greatly aided 
these institutions. Religious ceremonies, at which the 
bishop frequently officiated, accompanied the confer- 
ring of degrees. 

Before the year 1517 there were sixty-six univer- 
sities in Europe, Germany alone having sixteen. 
Besides the two renowned institutions at Paris and 
Bologna, we find other universities at Cambridge and 
Oxford in England, at Salamanca in Spain, at Bourges 
and Toulouse in France, and at Venice, Padua, Naples 

(121) 



122 THE CHURCH AND SACRED SCIENCE 

and Rome in Italy. Salerno, in Italy, possessed a 
noted school of medicine, and Pisa, Rome and Orleans 
were renowned for their schools of jurisprudence. 

165. Theology. — At the close of the eleventh 
century, the study of theology began to rank as a 
science. Lanfranc, the great bishop of Canterbury, 
revived it ; but it was his eminent pupil, St. Anselm, 
a diligent student of the works of St. Augustine, who 
first gave scholastic theology that eminence which it 
subsequently enjoyed in the great European universi- 
ties of the Middle Ages. 

The mendicant orders, whose members pursued the 
studies of theology and philosophy with great zeal and 
success, were important promoters of learning at this 
epoch. Among the Dominicans, the most famous 
doctors of theology were the Blessed Albertus Mag- 
nus and his renowned pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas, 
whose immortal works on philosophy and theology 
have been repeatedly recommended by the popes. St. 
Bonaventure, a Franciscan, so distinguished himself by 
his piety and his learned writings that Pope Sixtus V 
placed him among the Doctors of the Church. 

Dante, the greatest poet of the Middle Ages, has 
left us in his "Divina Commedia" a poetical summary 
of medieval philosophy and theology. Taking St. 
Thomas as his guide, the distinguished poet describes 
a mysterious voyage through the three realms of the 
departed souls : purgatory, heaven, hell. The great- 
ness of this popular, scientific, and religious Italian 
epic elicits from Dr. James J. Walsh the following 
well-merited praise : "It seems almost inevitable that 
a supreme poet should have lived in the thirteenth 
century, and should have summed up effectually in 
himself all the greatness of the century, and enshrined 
its thoughts in undying verse for all future genera- 
tions." 



THE CHURCH AND SACRED SCIENCE 123 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Universities: "Arnaul, the Englishman," by Francis Aveling 
(B. H.). 

"The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries," by Dr. J. J. 
Walsh (C. S. S. P.). Chs. I to V, "The Universities;" 
Ch. IX, "Libraries and Bookmen;" Ch. XII, "Great Latin 
Hymns;" Ch. XVII, "Aquinas, the Scholar;" Ch. XIX, 
"Dante, the Poet." 

Christianity and Poetry: "The Genius of Christianity," by 
Chateaubriand (J. M.). Part II, Bk. I, Ch. II, "Dante, 
Tasso." 

St. Thomas Aquinas: "Lectures on the History of Relig- 
ions" (B. H.). Vol III, "Aquinas." 

"St. Thomas Aquinas," by Fr. Placid Conway, O. P. 
(L. G.). 

St. Bonaventure: "St. Bonaventure," by Rev. L. Costello, 
O. F. M. (L. G.). 

Thomas Becket: "St. Thomas of Canterbury," by Rev. R. H. 
Benson (B. B.). 

"A Legend of Canterbury; or The People's Martyr," by 
Elizabeth M. Stewart (P. J. K.). 

Middle Ages: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. Coler 
(F. D. B.). Ch. IV, "The Middle Ages." 



FIFTH PERIOD 



FROM BONIFACE VIII TO LEO X (1303-1513) 



CHAPTER XIX. 

INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

I. The Holy See at Avignon 

166. Prologue. — After the great political crisis of 
the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and 
the incessant conflict between the clergy and the 
empire, which may be considered chiefly an external 
struggle, we find the Church in the fourteenth 
and fifteenth centuries facing an internal critical 
condition, the Schism of the West. For the purpose 
of ending the schism, councils are convoked, wherein 
are brought to light two conflicting conceptions regard- 
ing the organization of the Church. On the one side 
are ranged those who look upon the Church of God 
on earth as organized upon a grand republican plan, 
with its deliberating assemblies, the councils, presided 
over by the pope, yet superior to the pope ; on the 
other, we find those who regard the Church as having 
a monarchical form of government, wherein the pope is 
the sole and sovereign master. Thus we see that it is 
amid the saddest conflicts and the most regrettable 
internal dissensions that the Church is finally and 
definitely re-established upon its firm basis: the orig- 
inal constitution laid down by its Divine Founder, and 
so plainly outlined and determined in the first centuries 
of its existence. 

167. Avignon. — Clement V, formerly the Arch- 
bishop of Bordeaux, was crowned pope in the city of 
Lyons in 1305. As his immediate predecessors had 

(124) 



INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 125 

been constantly menaced by the intestinal wars of 
contending factions at Rome, by the interference of 
feudal barons, and the influence of the German 
emperors, Clement V dwelt successively at Bordeaux, 
Poitiers and Toulouse, and finally at Avignon. Here 
he established his residence, and here Benedict XII, 
one of his successors, constructed the papal palace. 
Clement V and six of his successors, including Greg- 
ory XI, were Frenchmen, and all appeared to submit 
more or less to the influence of the French king. This 
naturally excited the jealousy of the other nations, 
whilst it served as an example to other bishops, many 
of whom were much inclined to reside outside of their 
respective dioceses. On the other hand, Rome, being 
deprived of the presence of the pope, became a prey 
to the ravages of the turbulent nobility and of the 
disorderly and revolting factions. The long stay of 
the popes at Avignon was the chief cause of the Schism 
of the West. 

II. The Great Schism of the West 

168. The Schism.— St. Catherine of Siena, at the 
head of a Roman deputation, called upon Gregory XI 
at Avignon, and, by depicting the lamentable condi- 
tion of Italy, which was in danger of total defection, 
prevailed upon him to return to the Eternal City 
(1377). He resided there until his death, which 
occurred the following year. The people of Rome then 
clamored for the election of a Roman pope. The 
Sacred College, including the French cardinals, chose 
an Italian, the Archbishop of Bari, who took the name 
of Urban VI. The newly elected pope received recogni- 
tion from all the cardinals without exception, and at 
once set about to correct the abuses which had crept 
into the papal court. Without further consideration, he 
determined to impose a reform bearing especially upon 
the French cardinals. The severe measures he employed 
soon brought about a spirit of opposition. The discon- 
tented ones, sixteen in number, of whom eleven were 
Frenchmen, declared that the first conclave had not 



126 INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 

been free, and at once elected as pope Cardinal Robert 
of Geneva. The anti-pope assumed the name of 
Clement VII, and took up his residence at Avignon 
in 1378. This was the beginning of the Great Schism. 
Most of the Catholic countries remained faithful to 
Urban VI, but France, Scotland, Spain and the King- 
dom of Naples declared their allegiance to Clement 
VII. During forty years, Christianity was thus 
divided into two sections, notwithstanding all the 
efforts that were made by several popes to re-establish 
the unity of the Church. 

169. The Council of Pisa.— The Great Schism, 
with its attending evils, furnishes but another proof 
of the fact that the Church is a Divine institution, 
and that it is upheld by the almighty hand of God ; 
for, at this critical juncture, the papal authority must 
have perished forever if the Church had been the work 
of man. Upon the death of Urban VI, the Italian 
cardinals elected Boniface IX in 1389. Soon after, 
the cardinals at Avignon chose Benedict XIII to suc- 
ceed Clement VII. The University of Paris, an insti- 
tution of great influence and moral power in matters 
of religion as well as of science, proposed to end the 
schism by means of a general council. The cardinals 
and bishops accordingly met at Pisa, declared the popes 
of Avignon and Rome deposed, and named a third, 
Alexander V. However, the two popes protested that 
the council had no authority, since it had not been 
called by either of them, and thus there were three 
claimants to supreme authority. This fact only added 
to the general confusion. 

170. The Council of Constance. — A new council 
assembled at Constance, in 1414, and after forty-five 
general sessions, which occupied more than three years, 
the Great Schism was brought to an end. The 
pope of Rome, the only legitimate pope, voluntarily 
approved of the council, and then resigned ; the pope 
of Pisa agreed to abdicate. But Benedict XIII of 
Avignon refused to submit. He fled to the rocky sea- 



INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH 127 

coast near Valencia, where he died a few years after, 
maintaining his "good right" to the end. The council 
elected Martin V, who personally presided at the con- 
cluding sessions. He then proceeded to Rome, where 
he re-established the prestige of the sovereign pontifi- 
cate. 

Topical Outline 

I 

166. Internal dissensions disturbed the peace of 
the Church during the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
turies. 

167. The long stay of the popes at Avignon was 
the chief cause of the Schism of the West. 

II 

168. The schism began under Urban VI and lasted 
forty years. 

169. The Council of Pisa failed to put an end to 
the schism. 

170. The Council of Constance elected Martin V 
and ended the schism. 

See Notes: St. Catherine, conclave, anti-pope. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Return from Avignon: "Life of St. Catherine of Siena," by 
Edward Ayme, M. D. (B. B.). 

Great Schism: "The Great Schism of the West," by L. 
Salembier (B. B.). Ch. Ill, "The Election of Urban 
VI at Rome;" Ch. XIII, "The Council of Pisa;" Ch. XV, 
"The Council of Constance." 

"St. Vincent Ferrer," by S. M. Hogan, O. P. (L. G.). 
Ch. VIII, "His Labors in Ending the Schism." 

Boniface VIII: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. 
Coler (F. D. B.). Ch. VI, "Two French Philips." 



CHAPTER XX 

INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

171. The Pontifical Power. — The troubles and dis- 
sensions occasioned by the Great Schism naturally 
resulted in a weakening of the pontifical power. At 
the Council of Constance, a certain number of theolo- 
gians held that the authority of a general council was 
superior to that of the pope. This doctrine, already 
disavowed by Martin V, was formally censured later 
on by Pope Leo X in the Fifth Council of the Lateran. 
Moreover, the fact that there were two and even three 
claimants to the papal power had left men in doubt 
as to who was the lawful pontiff. This sense of inse- 
curity, as to who was the one sure guide in faith and 
morals, as well as the warring and intriguing of factions 
supporting one or the other claimant, could not but 
lessen in men's minds the prestige of the papacy. The 
weak were scandalized, whilst the evil-minded were 
encouraged to lawlessness, and a flood of error and 
depravity burst over the Christian nations of the West. 
The most powerful weapon of the Church, excommuni- 
cation, had lost its terrors for many, owing to the fact 
that it was too frequently used by the rival claimants 
during the schism. Bishops indeed swore fidelity to 
the sovereign pontiff, but often they despised his laws 
as well as the canons of the Church, for which his 
authority was the sanction. Yet here we may well 
repeat what has been said of the three centuries that 
followed the time of Pope St. Leo: "The pilot of St. 
Peter's ship has been tossed without intermission on 
the waves of the heaving ocean, but he has saved his 
vessel and the freight which it bears — the Christian 
Faith." 

172. Discipline and Worship. — Amid the general 
disorder, ecclesiastical discipline grew very lax. Several 
bishops left their dioceses at will, while others were 
more solicitous about their temporal power and the 

(128) 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 129 

care of their earthly possessions than about the salva- 
tion of the people entrusted to their guidance and direc- 
tion. Among priests and members of religious orders, 
laxity of life, avarice, and simony were often but too 
prevalent. Many among the laity imitated the example 
of their spiritual guides, and soon manifested a spirit 
of discontent, a disregard of moral principles, and often 
a frankly materialistic spirit. The world was ripe for 
revolt, and it naturally followed that each country 
assimilated the prevailing spirit in its own way. While 
Wyclif, with his "Poor Priests," as his disciples called 
themselves, fomented civil and religious discord in 
England, John Huss and his followers promoted a 
similar movement in Bohemia. The people who were 
not heretics, were to a great extent sensual, supersti- 
tious, dishonest, with little regard for the Mass or the 
sacraments, and with no aim in life but self-gratifica- 
tion. But here let us remark that God, who watches 
over His Church, raised up saints, such as St. Catherine 
of Siena, St. Bridget of Sweden, St. John Capistran, St. 
Vincent Ferrer, and others, who, along with many 
noted mystic theologians, brought about great and last- 
ing improvements in moral and religious discipline. 

173. Feasts and Prayers.— The feast of the Blessed 
Trinity, which had been celebrated in various coun- 
tries since the twelfth century, was extended to the 
entire Church by Pope John XXII, in 1334. The feast 
of the Visitation became universal by order of Pope 
Urban VI, in 1389. 

The Angelus was at first recited at the sound of 
the bell at sunset. Pope John XXII exhorted the faith- 
ful to recite the Hail Mary three times at the tolling of 
the bells. Soon the custom arose of ringing the bells 
also in the morning; finally, the midday ringing was 
introduced to venerate the Passion of Christ, as the 
Resurrection was honored in the morning and the 
Incarnation in the evening, these times corresponding 
to the hours at which these fundamental mysteries of 
our religion occurred. 



130 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

174. Christian Doctrine. — The popes and the coun- 
cils frequently reminded the pastors of the obligation 
incumbent upon them of explaining the Gospel to the 
faithful. The Bible was translated into the various 
languages of the people. Books were published con- 
taining the prayers at Mass, along with the Epistles 
and Gospels for each Sunday. 

The arts were likewise called into requisition for 
the purpose of instruction. The churches were deco- 
rated with sculptures and mural paintings representing 
scriptural scenes of the Old and New Testaments. 
These same scenes were reproduced in the "Bibles of 
the Poor," and in the illustrated catechisms published 
in great numbers, especially after the invention of the 
printing press. 

175. Christian Art. — Gothic architecture, which 
had reached its highest development in the thirteenth 
century, continued to produce, during the fourteenth 
century, such monumental works of art as the cathe- 
drals of Rouen, Strasburg, Regensburg, Ulm and Metz. 
The architects of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and the 
beginning of the sixteenth centuries, gradually altered 
the primitive purity of the Gothic style. They compli- 
cated the original simplicity of the arch and vaulted 
ceiling, and practically overcharged all parts of the 
edifice with a profusion of sculptured figures and carved 
ornaments. Most of the cathedrals of the Middle Ages, 
which were begun in the thirteenth century and reached 
their completion only in the fourteenth and fifteenth, 
present specimens of all the various phases in the devel- 
opment of Gothic architecture. It was not difficult, 
during these ages of faith, to obtain laborers and abun- 
dant resources for the construction of such great mas- 
terpieces. In fact, it was no uncommon sight to behold 
men of the nobility, and chevaliers of distinguished 
birth, mingling with the ordinary laborers, and lending 
their aid in the construction of the house of God. 

Painting and sculpture were perfected, and lent 
their noblest productions to embellish the sacred tern- 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 131 

pies of the Most High. In Italy, the Florentine school 
of painting attained the zenith of its glory in the works 
of Leonardo da Vinci, whilst Fra Angelico carried his 
mystic art to a high degree of perfection. 

176. Sorcery and Witchcraft.— Throughout the 
Middle Ages, the belief in sorcery and in magic arts, a 
sad inheritance from Paganism, still prevailed among 
the masses. Women were generally supposed to enter 
more readily into secret compacts with the evil spirits, 
through whose aid they could bring harm to humanity. 
Burkhart, the Bishop of Worms, had strongly opposed 
and repudiated this false belief. However, many 
instinctively admitted the possibility of such relations, 
and clung tenaciously to their superstitious notions. In 
1484 Pope Innocent VIII gave full power to the Domin- 
icans to investigate the alleged practices of magic 
or necromancy. The persecution against sorcerers 
had assumed vast proportions in almost all countries. 
Such superstitious beliefs always found numerous 
and powerful adversaries ; but, as they were strongly 
rooted in the minds of men, any attempt to eradicate 
them was sure to call forth violent protests on the part 
of the masses. 

177. Religious Orders. — With the exception of the 
Order of the Carthusians and of some communities of 
the Cistercian monks, the religious orders of the time 
needed reform. The decadence was the result of civil 
disturbances, of the Great Schism, and of natural 
human weakness, which, even in the best institutions, 
has always stood in the way of progress towards Chris- 
tian perfection. 

The Order of Saint Benedict witnessed its decline in 
fervor from the day that its material resources began to 
accumulate. Various bishops and abbots attempted to 
reform individual abbeys, but they invariably met with 
defeat. Others, however, returned to their primitive 
fervor, and to the strict observance of their rules. The 
councils held at Constance and at Basle labored stren- 
uously to bring about similar reforms, and, in 



132 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

consequence, a number of institutes were established, 
wherein the original rules of the old orders were 
observed in all their pristine perfection. At the same 
time, new orders and congregations sprang into exist- 
ence, among others the Order of the Minim Friars, 
founded by Saint Francis of Paula in 1435, and the con- 
gregation of the Alexian Brothers, whose special object 
is the care of the sick in hospitals. 

Topical Outline 

171. The prestige of the papacy was lessened as a 
result of the Western Schism. 

172. Laxity of discipline among the clergy and 
laity was counteracted by the saints. 

173. Various feasts and the prayer of the Angelus 
became universal. 

174. The Bible and the arts were used to instruct 
the people. 

175. Gothic architecture was further developed, 
and painting and sculpture were perfected. 

176. The masses of the people believed in sorcery 
and the magic arts. 

177. Old orders were reformed, and new orders 
and congregations were founded. 

See Notes: Canons, mystic theology. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Popular Notions of Sorcery: "Jeanne D'Arc, the Maid of 
France," by C. M. Antony (B. B.). 
"Jeanne D'Arc," by Rev. Robert Hugh Benson (B. B.). 

The Bible: "The Catholic Church and the Bible," by Rev. 

Dr. Chauvin (B. H.). Part IV, "The Reading of the 

Bible in the Church." 
Ceremonies: "Catholic Ceremonies and Explanations of the 

Ecclesiastical Year." by Abbe Durand (B. B.). 

Dominicans: "Fra Girolamo Savonarola," bv Rev. Herbert 
Lucas. S. J. (B H.). 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE CHURCH, THE GUARDIAN OF REVEALED DOCTRINE 

178. Heresies. — During the latter part of the Mid- 
dle Ages, the necessity of reform in religious discipline 
and observance was universally conceded. Lawful 
authority labored judiciously and untiringly to coun- 
teract the laxity of faith, and the loss of fervor in the 
practices of Christian and religious discipline. But 
soon there arose men, who, through their false teach- 
ing, proved a menace to society in general. Such were 
the heretics, John Wyclif and John Huss. 

179. John Wyclif. — He was a professor of theology 
at the University of Oxford. Having declared the 
Bible to be the only source of faith, Wyclif denied the 
freedom of the human will, and the dogma of transub- 
stantiation. His false teachings and those of his dis- 
ciples brought about an insurrection of the peasants 
in 1381, which was suppressed by the English king 
Richard II. In 1384 Wyclif was suddenly struck with 
apoplexy, which deprived him of the use of his tongue 
and lips. He died after three days, refusing to the end 
to recant his errors. 

180. John Huss. — Huss was a Bohemian reformer, 
and an ardent defender of the errors of Wyclif. He 
was excommunicated by Pope John XXIII. However, 
he continued, notwithstanding his suspension, to say 
Mass and to preach his errors. He was cited to appear 
before the Council of Constance. Upon refusing to 
revoke his heretical opinions, he was degraded from 
his sacerdotal dignity, and handed over to the secular 
power for punishment, according to the custom of the 
times. He was condemned by the royal -court of justice 
and burned at the stake as a heretic and a disturber of 
the public peace. After the death of Huss, the terrible 
Hussite war broke out in Bohemia, which resulted in 
the pillaging of churches, and the expulsion of the 
clergy. 

(133) 



134 THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 

181. Christian Instruction. — The preaching of the 
word of God was by no means neglected during the 
later Middle Ages. The duty of preaching and of 
explaining the truths of faith was frequently urged 
upon the pastors of the Church by synods and bishops. 
The giving of catechetical instruction was imposed as a 
duty on parents, teachers and pastors. Among the emi- 
nent preachers of this period we might mention St. 
Vincent Ferrer, who combated heresy in Spain, and 
preached penance in many places, and St. John Capi- 
stran, who defended the Faith against the Hussites, and 
roused the Christians to defend the Church against the 
Turks. 

182. The Influence of the Church.— During the 
Middle Ages, the Church led the Germanic and Slavic 
tribes from the darkness of Paganism to the light of 
faith. Together with the supernatural mysteries of 
faith, she brought to these nations the treasures of 
natural science. She founded the universities, and 
encouraged the study of theology and philosophy. 
Under her guidance and direction other branches of 
knowledge, such as historical writing and poetry, were 
highly developed. What the Church has done for art 
is best illustrated by those glorious monuments, the 
grand cathedrals of the Middle Ages, in the construc- 
tion of which the inventive genius of mankind, illu- 
mined by faith, has achieved an everlasting triumph. 

The spirit of the Church was effective in ennobling 
the hearts of men. Through her benign influence sav- 
age hordes were transformed into civilized and virtuous 
men. It is true that she did not succeed in eradicating 
every disorder from domestic and political life ; this, 
however, does not rob her of the merit of having raised 
the nations from a state of barbarism to one of higher 
civilization and culture. 

Thus we see that the Church faithfully acquitted 
herself of her Divine mission in the Middle Ages, as she 
had always done before, and that she was not in need 
of reformation by the hand of man in the sixteenth 



THE GUARDIAN OF REVELATION 135 

century. But it is true, however, that man has ever 
been in need of spiritual and moral regeneration 
through the Church. 

Topical Outline 

178. Heretical reformers proved a menace to 
society. 

179. The teachings of Wyclif brought about the 
Insurrection of the Peasants. 

180. The pretended reforms of John Huss caused 
the Hussite wars in Bohemia. 

181. St. Vincent Ferrer and St. John Capistran 
were noted preachers of the Gospel. 

182. The Church developed the arts and sciences, 
and civilized and enlightened the nations. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Gothic Churches: ''The Genius of Christianity," by Chateau- 
briand (J. M.). Part III, Bk. I, Ch. VIII. 

Saints: "St. Vincent Ferrer," by S. M. Hogan, O. P. (L. G). 
"St. John Capistran," by Fr. V. Fitzgerald, O. F. M. 
(L. G). Ch. VI, "Defense of Christendom;" Ch. VII, 
"The Victory of Belgrade." 



SIXTH PERIOD 



FROM LEO X TO ALEXANDER VII (1513-1655) 



CHAPTER XXII 

HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

183. Leo X (1513-1521) was a scion of the illus- 
trious family of the Medici. He was a great promoter 
of literature, science and art, and a potent factor in the 
cultural development of the West. The protection 
extended to the master genius, Raphael, has given 
Leo X his most enduring claim on posterity. 

In 1516 he concluded a concordat with Francis I 
of France, granting him the right to nominate the bish- 
ops and abbots of his kingdom. This gave the French 
crown great control over the Church, and, at a later 
period, led to many abuses. The most important 
occurrence during his pontificate was the Reformation, 
which began in 1517. 

184. Saint Pius V (1566-1572) was a member of 
the Order of St. Dominic. For the purpose of imped- 
ing the progress of the Turks, he brought about a 
coalition of the Venetian, the Spanish, and the pontifi- 
cal fleets. At the head of the combined fleets, John of 
Austria gained a brilliant victory at Lepanto in 1571. 
At the moment of victory, the holy pope, instructed by 
a heavenly vision, announced the successful outcome 
of the battle to the cardinals who were present in the 
papal palace. In memory of this triumph, he instituted 
the feast of the Rosary, and added to the Litany of 
Loreto the supplication "Help of Christians, pray for 
us." 

(136) 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 137 

185. Gregory XIII (1572-1585) has left us the 
reformed or Gregorian calendar. A previous adjust- 
ment of dates was made in the time of Julius Caesar; 
but this not being sufficiently accurate, there was a 
deficiency of ten days by the beginning of the year 1582. 
The pope ordered that the day following the fourth 
of October of that year be reckoned as the fifteenth, 
and, in order to avoid any future aberration, he decreed 
that, of the centurial years, only those should be leap 
years, of which the first two figures formed a number 
exactly divisible by four. Catholic countries at once 
adopted the Gregorian calendar, but for a long time 
the Protestant states retained the old dating. 

Gregory XIII founded numerous colleges and semi- 
naries, and spared no efforts to restore the Catholic 
Faith in countries that had become Protestant. He 
built the magnificent Gregorian chapel in the Church 
of St. Peter and also the Quirinal palace, and made so 
many improvements in Rome that the senate and the 
people, in recognition thereof, erected a statue in his 
honor on the Capitoline Hill. 

186. Sixtus V (1585-1590), a Franciscan monk, 
was raised to the papal dignity at the age of 62. He at 
once set about to repress the brigandage which pre- 
vailed in the Roman States. He beautified the capital 
city, built the palace of the Lateran, erected the Vati- 
can library, completed the cupola of St. Peter's, and 
gave a great impetus to commerce and agriculture. He 
published the Vulgate edition of the Bible (1590), and 
established the various Roman Congregations for the 
purpose of expediting ecclesiastical affairs. It was he 
that imposed upon all the bishops a periodic voyage 
to Rome, called "ad Limina", and fixed the number of 
cardinals at 70, to be divided as follows : 6 cardinal- 
bishops, 50 cardinal-priests, and 14 cardinal-deacons. 

187. Paul V (1605-1621).— A serious struggle 
between Church and State occurred during his pontifi- 
cate. Various laws passed by the proud Republic of 



138 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

Venice, touching the rights of the Church, were so 
obnoxious, that Pope Paul V found himself at last 
compelled to impose ban and interdict upon the repub- 
lic. The Government remained refractory, however, 
and banished those among the clergy who obeyed the 
papal commands. A reconciliation was finally brought 
about through the mediation of France and Spain. 

Pope Paul V displayed great zeal for the purity of 
the faith, for the education of the clergy, and for the 
success of the missions. During his pontificate, a large 
number of new institutes for education and charity 
added lustre to religion. 

188. Gregory XV (1621-1623).— His pontificate of 
two years and five months was one of remarkable activ- 
ity. He enriched the library of the Vatican, and insti- 
tuted the Congregation of the Propaganda, which was 
to have supreme control over all foreign missions. He 
regulated the form presently in use for the election of 
the popes, and decreed that the ordinary mode of elec- 
tion should be by scrutiny, which required that the 
vote be secret, that each cardinal cast his vote for only 
one candidate, and that no one vote for himself. 

189. Urban VIII (1623-1644) was a great patron 
of Catholic foreign missions, and a zealous promoter 
of religious orders. He founded the famous Barberini 
library, which was acquired and added to the Vatican 
library by Leo XIII in 1902. Urban bestowed upon the 
cardinals the title of "Eminence", their former title 
having been "Illustrious and Most Reverend". His 
pontificate extended over a critical period in the his- 
tory of the Catholic Church, the Thirty Years' War. 
In 1642, he issued a Bull condemning the "Augustinus" 
of Jansenius. 

190. Innocent X (1644-1655) was distinguished for 
his rare personal qualities, and his apostolic charity. 
He displayed much zeal for the re-establishment of dis- 
cipline in the convents. He issued a Bull in which he 
declared null and void those articles of the Peace of 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 139 

Westphalia which were detrimental to the Catholic 
religion. He also condemned five propositions taken 
from the "Augustinus" of Jansenius. This gave a new 
impulse to the great Jansenist controversy in France. 

Topical Outline 

183. Leo X was a great promoter of literature, sci- 
ence and art. 

184. St. Pius V formed a coalition against the 
Turks. 

185. Gregory XIII corrected the calendar. 

186. Sixtus V established the Roman Congrega- 
tions. 

187. Paul V imposed the ban and interdict upon 
the Republic of Venice. 

188. Gregory XV instituted the Congregation of 
the Propaganda. 

189. Urban VIII condemned the "Augustinus" of 
Jansenius. 

190. Innocent X was distinguished for his zeal and 
charity. 

See Notes: Roman Congregations, Propaganda, Augus- 
tinus, Westphalia, beatify. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Rome: "A Visit to Europe and the Holy Land," by Rev. 
H. F. Fairbanks (B. B.). Ch. XXIII, "The Eternal City." 

Papacy: "The See of Peter and the Voice of Antiquity," by 
Rev. T S. Dolan (B. H.). 

"The Purpose of the Papacy," by Rev. John S. Vaughan 
(B. H.). 

Costumes: "Costumes of the Prelates," by Rev. John A. 
Nainfa (J. M.). 

St. Pius V: "St. Pius V," by C. M. Antony (L. G.). Ch. VII, 
"The Battle of Lepanto;" Ch. VIII, "The Pope of the 
Holy Rosary." 

Roman Curia: "The Roman Curia as it Now Exists," by 
Rev. Michael Martin, S. J. (B. B.). 



CHAPTER XXIII 

PROTESTANTISM 

191. Causes. — The abuses connected with the 
preaching of indulgences may be considered as the 
proximate occasion of the Protestant revolt. The lax- 
ity among some of the clergy served merely as a 
pretext, for, ever since the days of Gregory VII, these 
alleged disorders were far from being general. 

Among the principal causes of the so-called Refor- 
mation we must consider, in the first place, the weak- 
ening of the principles of faith and of the spiritual 
authority, undermined by the Great Schism of the 
West. Furthermore, the license which the new doc- 
trines accorded to the human passions ; natural pride, 
flattered by the individual interpretation of the Sacred 
Scriptures ; the possessions of the Church, left as a 
defenseless prey to the rapacity of the nobles and the 
people, — these were inducements that figured largely 
among the principal causes of success. Besides, the 
reformers had gained the support and protection of 
the nobles and princes, while the art of printing lent 
its aid to the diffusion of error among the confused and 
excited populace. 

192. Biographical Notes — (a) Luther. — Martin 
Luther was born in 1483, at Eisleben, in Saxony. The 
severity exercised by his parents and teachers in his 
early training made him a fretful, timid lad, but did 
not break his pride and stubbornness. At the age of 
fourteen, he attended the Latin school of the Francis- 
can Fathers at Magdeburg, and some time later, the 
University of Erfurth. His talents and assiduous 
study won renown for him. During his stay at the 
university he often threw himself with heart and soul 
into the gayeties of student life, but, invariably after 
such scenes of hilarity, deep melancholy seized upon 
him, and he would fall into gloominess. In just such 
a fit as this he made a vow to enter a convent, and 

(140) 



PROTESTANTISM 141 

eventually applied for admission into the monastery of 
the Augustinians at Erfurth. 

He was ordained to the priesthood in 1507, and in 
the following year was sent to the University of Wit- 
tenberg. Here he taught philosophy and continued 
his biblical and theological studies. He truly sought 
peace and quiet, but the quiet of the cloister only 
increased his natural scrupulosity. Like all scruplers, 
he lacked confidence in God, and, therefore, never 
experienced that consoling feeling of a conscience at 
ease. In him, the fear of the Lord was not tempered 
by the sweet consciousness of His mercy. He found 
no solace in prayer, and instead of humbling himself 
before God, he became puffed up with spiritual pride. 
"When I had read Mass or prayed," he wrote, "I did 
not thank God, but thought that God was under obli- 
gation to me." This feeling of self-complacency alter- 
nated with the blackest despair. Under such a strain, 
Luther looked about for a balm to heal the wounds of 
his conscience. Impelled by this desire, he eagerly 
searched Holy Writ, and at last read into its pages the 
famous doctrine of justification by faith alone. All 
other tenets of the system which he afterwards 
preached had before been held by some heretic or 
other, but this was an entirely new idea. It became 
the fundamental and distinguishing doctrine of Protes- 
tantism, and in it the full meaning and import of the 
doctrinal revolt of the sixteenth century is contained. 

(b) Zwingli. — Ulrich Zwingli, founder of the Refor- 
mation in Switzerland, was born in 1484 at Wildhausen. 
He became a learned priest, but, according to his .own 
avowal, he gave great scandal by his unworthy manner 
of life. His talents led him to engage in political 
affairs, and having gained considerable prestige and 
importance, he began his religious innovations. Like 
Luther, he asserted that the Bible was the sole source 
of faith, and preached against the pope and the ancient 
doctrines of the Church. He then ceased to celebrate 
Mass, denied the existence of all the sacraments, and 
married. 



142 PROTESTANTISM 

Zwingli was a contemporary but not a disciple of 
Luther. In fact, his controversy with the latter, who 
wanted to retain the dogma of the Real Presence in 
the Blessed Eucharist, was very coarse and bitter. 
Seeing that the older cantons of Switzerland refused 
to accept his "reformed" doctrine, he prohibited all 
intercourse with them, thereby causing them to take 
up arms. In the second engagement he fell mortally 
wounded (1531). 

(c) John Calvin. — Calvin was born in 1509 at 
Noyon, in France. He began to prepare himself for 
the priesthood at the University of Paris, but, becom- 
ing acquainted with Lutheranism, he entered upon its 
defense with such violence that he was obliged to 
leave France. He went to Germany, where he was 
thoroughly initiated into the new doctrines. These 
he subsequently preached at Geneva, whence his tyran- 
nical rule caused him to be expelled. He returned, 
however, in 1540, and labored during twenty years to 
establish the Reform. Though he advocated the "lib- 
erty of the Gospel," he persecuted with persistent 
hatred all who did not agree with his views in every 
particular. Those who dared to oppose him were 
thrown into prison, or exiled, for he practically gov- 
erned the city in the name of religion. Michael Serve- 
tus, who contradicted him, was publicly burned at the 
stake. Others he caused to be beheaded, teaching that 
it was lawful to use the sword to force heretics into 
submission. During a pestilence that reigned in the 
city, he dispensed himself (and his ministers) from 
visiting the sick, on the plea that it was necessary to 
preserve his health for the welfare of the church and 
of- the city. He died at Geneva in 1564. 

Topical Outline 

191. The causes that led to the Protestant Refor- 
mation are enumerated. 

192. The lives of Luther, Zwingli and Calvin are 
outlined. 



PROTESTANTISM 143 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Protestantism: "The Protestant Reformation," by Rev. 
Charles Coppens, S. J. (B. H.). Ch. II, "Martin Luther," 
Ch. V, "Origin of Anabaptists and Baptists;" Ch. VI, 
"Origin of Calvinism." 
"Life of St. Thomas Villanova" (P. J. K.). 

16th Century: "Rosario," a Tale of the Sixteenth Century, 
by a Sister of Mercy (P. J. K.). 

Calvinism: "The Old Chest," by Anna T. Sadlier (P. J. K.). 
Ch. XII, "Catholic and Protestant, XVI Century." 



CHAPTER XXIV 

SPREAD OF PROTESTANTISM IN EUROPE 

193. St. Peter's at Rome.— The popes of the fif- 
teenth century undertook great works for the embel- 
lishment of the city of Rome. They had become the 
patrons of art, and the protectors of the great artistic 
movement known as the Renaissance. Pope Julius II 
(1503-1513), utilizing the talent of such great masters 
as Bramante and Michelangelo, undertook to rebuild 
the ancient basilica of St. Peter, and actually laid the 
cornerstone of the modern basilica in 1506. Pope Leo 
X, the universal patron of art, who merited the dis- 
tinction of giving his name to the century, continued, 
among other magnificent enterprises, the construction 
of the new church of St. Peter. In order to raise the 
enormous sums of money required, he granted numer- 
ous indulgences to all who would contribute to the 
erection of this grand edifice over the tomb of the Apos- 
tles. The giving of alms for this pious purpose was 
not, however, the only condition enjoined for the gain- 
ing of the indulgences. The usual conditions, such as 
confession. Holy Communion, fasts, visits to churches 
and the like, were required in order to partake of the 
benefit of the plenary indulgences granted. 

194. The Preaching of Indulgences.— Albert of 
Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mentz, was charged by 
Pope Leo X to preach the indulgences in Germany. 
The archbishop entrusted the publication of the indul- 
gences in Saxony to John Tetzel, a learned Dominican 
of Leipsic. As soon as Tetzel arrived in the vicinity 
of Wittenberg, Luther opposed him, because the teach- 
ing of the Catholic doctrine concerning indulgences, 
confession and penance, did not agree with his own 
views on justification. He attacked indulgences from 
the pulpit, and tried to provoke a public discussion. 

195. Condemnation of Luther. — The Archbishop 
of Mentz informed the pope of the false teachings of 

(144) 



SPREAD OF PROTESTANTISM IN EUROPE 145 

Luther, who was accordingly ordered to Rome to 
acknowledge his errors. Alleging the plea of infirm 
health, Luther succeeded in having the hearing fixed 
during the Diet of Augsburg in Germany (1518). He 
appeared before the papal legate, Cajetan, but instead 
of retracting his errors, appealed to the pope. Leo X 
issued a Bull defining the doctrine of the Church on 
indulgences, and another wherein forty-one of Luther's 
theses were condemned, and their author invited to 
retract within sixty days, under pain of excommunica- 
tion. Luther, after writing a shameful pamphlet 
entitled "Against the Bull of Antichrist," publicly burnt 
the Bull in the presence of the students of Wittenberg, 
whereupon he was formally excommunicated by the 
pope. Charles V, who had recently been proclaimed 
emperor, being himself a fervent Catholic and desirous 
of maintaining religious peace in the empire, convoked 
a diet at Worms at which Luther was publicly con- 
demned (1521). Frederick, Elector of Saxony, a great 
protector of the heretical Luther, in order to prevent 
the banishment of the latter, arranged to have him 
captured by a body of cavaliers on his way back from 
the diet. Luther was secreted in the castle of Wart- 
burg, where he remained nearly a year. During this 
seclusion he commenced his translation of the Bible 
into German, adapting it to suit his new system of 
belief. 

196. Rapid Progress of Protestantism. — To obtain 
the support of the secular princes of Germany, Luther 
exhorted them to confiscate the property of the Church. 
The hope of sharing the magnificent spoils drew to 
his party a great number of powerful nobles. Frederick 
of Saxony, and Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, openly 
espoused his cause. Luther permitted the latter to 
have two wives, saying that, according to the Scrip- 
tures, it was not positively forbidden. Having assailed 
monastic life and the celibacy of the clergy, Luther 
did not scruple to commit the double sacrilege of taking 
as his wife a young nun, Catherine Bora, whom he had 
enticed from her convent. Lessons such as these, 



146 SPREAD OF PROTESTANTISM IN EUROPE 

enforced by such examples, were too acceptable to the 
corrupt heart of man to be overlooked, and the new 
sect made rapid progress. From Upper Saxony it 
spread into the duchies of Brunswick, Mecklenburg, 
Pomerania, and Prussia, where Albert of Branden- 
burg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, became a 
Lutheran, and appropriated the property of his com- 
munity. When Luther thus found himself at the head 
of a powerful party, he abandoned all reserve, and 
poured out a torrent of invectives against the pope, 
the Church, and the doctrines of faith. It is a melan- 
choly task to peruse the coarse jests, the low and 
disgusting buffoonery, and the vile indecencies with 
which his books are filled ; and it is difficult to conceive 
how such a leader could have found followers. The 
relaxation of all restraints, the love of money and of 
pleasure, must have had deeply corrupted the hearts of 
the people, before they could have stooped to such 
degradation. There were even bishops and abbots who 
appropriated to themselves the property belonging to 
their benefices, and joined the ranks of the reformers. 

197. Luther's Death; — His Legacy. — During the 
closing years of his turbulent life, Luther led a miser- 
able existence. Stricken with ill health, exhausted by 
reason of his excessive activity, consumed with disap- 
pointment and chagrin, he succumbed to a stroke of 
apoplexy at Eisleben, in 1546. 

The principal doctrines which he had bequeathed 
to the Reformation are these : Man's evil inclinations 
constitute original sin ; they vitiate all his actions and 
destroy his liberty. He can be saved by faith alone 
in view of the merits of Christ. There are only two 
sacraments, baptism and communion, which are the 
symbols of justification. Christ is present in the bread 
at the moment of receiving communion. The Bible 
is the only source of faith. The true church of Christ 
is invisible, and without a hierarchy. 

198. Errors of Calvinism. — Calvin, who is 
regarded as second only to Luther, taught that free 



SPREAD' OF PROTESTANTISM IN EUROPE 147 

will was entirely destroyed by the fall ; he rejected 
indulgences, purgatory, and the invocation of the 
saints; he denounced not only the pope, but bishops 
and priests as well ; he abolished festivals and sacred 
ceremonies, and all those sensible means by which the 
minds and hearts of men are raised to the contem- 
plation and worship of God. Religious practices were 
confined to prayer, preaching, and chanting the Psalms 
of David. 

Calvin traveled far and wide to spread his opinions, 
and at last settled at Geneva, which had expelled its 
bishop some years before, and embraced the doctrines 
of Luther. At Geneva his power was absolute, and he 
used it with extreme rigor. No one dared to oppose 
him ; and he who taught that it was sinful to hear 
and obey the Church, exacted from all around him the 
blindest submission to his doctrines and his will. 

199. Errors of Zwingli. — This heresiarch taught 
that the sacraments were merely outward signs by 
which a Christian might be recognized. He destroyed 
the pictures in the churches, demolished the altars, and 
prohibited the use of vestments and ceremonies. He 
rejected the sacraments of Penance and Extreme Unc- 
tion, and abolished the Mass, introducing in its stead 
the memorial service of the Last Supper. 

200. Consequences of the New Errors. — (a) From 
a religious point of view. — The liberty of private 
interpretation of the Scriptures, by destroying the unity 
of faith in Europe, gave rise to numberless sects, and 
ended in the final repudiation of all belief and morality. 
In fact, Luther himself was soon surpassed. Thomas 
Munzer and Nicholas Storck, at the head of the Ana- 
baptists, preached the necessity of a second baptism, 
the public ownership of goods, and the equality of all 
men in Christ. Andrew Bodenstein of Carlstadt 
rejected the Real Presence in the Blessed Eucharist, 
and all the sacraments. On every side new apostles 
of error arose, and religious left their convents, broke 



148 SPREAD OF PROTESTANTISM IN EUROPE 

their sacred vows, and married. Thus we see plainly 
how modern rationalism and moral independence are a 
direct outcome of Lutheranism. 

(b) From a political point of view. — The German 
princes and the nobility of high rank drew from 
Luther's teachings whatever tended to favor their 
political aggrandizement. The Church, as Luther 
claimed, was invisible, and could therefore have no 
clergy ; hence she could hold no possessions. The 
princes accordingly secularized ecclesiastical benefits, 
and increased their own possessions as well as their 
authority by inducing or forcing their people to adopt 
the new gospel. 

(c) From a social point of view. — The immediate 
results of Luther's doctrines were ruin, desolation, and 
bloodshed. Men rose in open revolt, using the texts of 
the Scriptures to sanction their excesses. Feudal 
rights were suppressed and serfdom abolished, while 
the division of property was sanctioned, and universal 
equality was to be established. The peasants, acting 
upon Luther's teaching, ravaged the provinces of 
Suabia, Franconia and Alsace ; they pillaged and burnt 
the churches, destroyed alike monasteries and castles, 
and slaughtered the priests and monks. Thus the 
history of the new heresy furnishes the best arguments 
for its condemnation. 

Topical Outline 

193. Pope Leo X granted indulgences to those 
who contributed towards the completion of St. Peter's. 

194. The Dominican, John Tetzel, published the 
indulgences in Germany. 

195. Luther was excommunicated by Leo X. 

196. Luther obtained the support of secular 
princes, and many people joined the ranks of the 
reformer. 

197. Luther died of apoplexy. His principal doc- 
trines are stated. 



SPREAD OF PROTESTANTISM IN EUROPE 149 

198. Calvin taught many errors and exacted blind 
submission. 

199. Zwingli proclaimed various heretical doc- 
trines. 

200. The consequences of the new errors are 
enumerated. 

See Notes: Bramante, Michelangelo, Bull, thesis, diet. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

France: "The Castle of Roussillon," by Madame Eugenie 
de la Rochere (P. J. K.). "Religious Wars in France." 

Germany: "German Schools in the Sixteenth Century" 

(B. B.). 
Ireland: "The Coming of the King," a Jacobite Romance, 

by Arthur Synan (B. H.). 

Scotland: "Lorenzo, or the Empire of Religion," by a Scotch 
Non-Conformist (J. M.). 

"The Protestant Reformation," by Rev. Charles Coppens, 
S. J. (B. H.). Ch. IX, "The Reformation in Scotland;" 
Ch. X, "Sweden;" Ch. XI, "Denmark;" Ch. XII, "Nor- 
way." 

Julius II: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. Color 
(F. D. B.). Ch. VII, "The Ghost of a Spanish King" 
(Charles V). 



CHAPTER XXV 

PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 

I. Switzerland 

201. Zwingli, Calvin, and other contemporary 
reformers spread their heretical doctrines throughout 
Switzerland, until most of the cantons were infested 
with error. They formed rival leagues, and bloody 
wars ensued. The Catholic cantons finally prevailed 
at Kappel (1531) and at Zug, and the convention, which 
was held in the following year, divided the country 
into Catholic, Protestant and mixed cantons. Liberty 
of conscience was granted, not to the individual, but 
rather to the separate governments, so that each canton 
was to be free to establish its own belief and form of 
government. Geneva, where the French language 
was prevalent, became the center whence the false 
doctrines were disseminated, spreading rapidly into 
France, Holland and England. It well deserved to be 
termed, "The Rome of Protestantism". 

II. France 

202. Lutheranism made its way into France from 
Germany, in the early part of the sixteenth century, 
and a few years later Calvinism crept in from Geneva. 
The early Lutherans and Calvinists had been artisans 
and workmen, but in the course of time some of the 
most influential princes and noblemen joined their 
ranks. Thus it happened that the French Calvinists, 
or Huguenots, as they were called, gradually became 
a political and military force, and the kings of France 
were but defending their own rights in opposing these 
heretics. This brought on the civil wars called "wars 
of religion", which, during thirty years of civil disorder, 
included such odious scenes as the massacre of the 
Calvinists at Vassy (1562) by the troopers of Guise, 
and the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. The 
Huguenots, who complained of Catholic intolerance, 

(150) 



PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 151 

were themselves most intolerant wherever they hap- 
pened to be the stronger. The Edict of Nantes (1598) 
granted them by King Henry IV, allowed the free 
exercise of their religious worship, but, wherever pos- 
sible, they opposed the enforcement of those clauses 
which were favorable to Catholics. 

III. England 

203. Henry VIII (1509-1547).— Henry at first 
opposed Luther in an excellent work entitled "Treatise 
on the Seven Sacraments". On account of this work, 
Pope Leo X granted him the title of Defender of the 
Faith. However, his ill-regulated passions soon drew 
him into a schism, which prepared the country for the 
introduction of heresy. The principal causes of the 
Anglican Schism, as it is called, were the passions as 
well as the private interests of the king, who, with the 
connivance of the nobility, desired to appropriate the 
ecclesiastical benefices. Yielding to his passionate 
attraction for Anne Boleyn, a maid of honor at the 
court, Henry sought to obtain a divorce from his wife, 
Catherine of Aragon, urging the plea that his marriage 
with the widow of his brother was forbidden by Divine 
law. Although Pope Julius II had granted him a 
dispensation at the time (1509), he now requested Pope 
Clement VII to annul the marriage. The pope 
appointed two legates, one of whom was Cardinal 
Wolsey, the prime minister of the king, to examine 
the case maturely. Henry was impatient at the delay. 
By bribes and other means of pressure he had already 
obtained a favorable reply from several universities. 
The queen demanded to be judged directly by the pope, 
who, resisting the petition of the English lords, refused 
to annul the marriage. Cranmer, whose appointment 
to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury was due to 
Henry's efforts, considered that he held the arch- 
bishopric from the king, although he had received the 
pallium from the pope. Having broken his own vow 
of celibacy, he easily divorced the king from Queen 
Catherine, and declared valid the king's secret marriage 



152 PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 

with Anne Boleyn, who was then crowned queen. 
Meanwhile the Commons had forbidden all appeals to 
Rome, and enacted penalties against all who introduced 
papal Bulls into England. Upon this Clement at last 
pronounced a sentence of excommunication against the 
king (1533), declaring Cranmer's pretended divorce to 
be invalid, and the marriage with Anne Boleyn null 
and void. Hereupon Parliament abolished all ecclesi- 
astical dependence on Rome, and declared the king 
"Supreme Head of the Church of England". Shortly 
after, Cromwell, a layman, was appointed to rule the 
English Church in the king's name. Then followed 
the wholesale suppression of religious houses and 
monasteries, with the subsequent confiscation of their 
goods and property. Henry VI 1 1 then began, without 
however attacking the dogmas of the Church, to oblige 
all, under penalty of death, to accept his "Bill of the Six 
Articles of Faith", known as the "Bloody Bill", by 
which he defined and established the new discipline of 
the Anglican Church. The theological despotism of 
the king was confirmed by the execution of hundreds 
of victims. Lutherans as well as Catholics were perse- 
cuted and put to death : the former as heretics, because 
they denied the points of doctrine contained in the 
"Bloody Bill"; the latter as traitors, because they 
refused to acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the 
king. 

20+. Edward VI (1547-1553).— England, being 
now separated from Rome, the center of Christianity, 
soon became a fruitful field for the spread of Protes- 
tantism. Edward was only ten years old, and his uncle, 
the Count of Somerset, was regent in his stead. The 
count, with the assistance of Archbishop Cranmer, 
abolished the Bill of the Six Articles, and replaced it 
by the "Confession of the Forty-two Articles", most 
of which were opposed to the doctrines of the Catholic 
Church. Moreover, Protestant doctors were brought 
over from Germany, and every British subject was 



PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 153 

obliged, as a proof of loyalty, to subscribe to theii 
heretical doctrines. 

205. Mary Tudor, the Catholic (1553-1558).— Upon 
the death of Edward VI, Queen Mary, daughter of 
Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, ascended the 
throne. In her private life she was an example of 
virtue. Her reign was entirely consecrated to the 
re-establishment of Catholicity. She renewed the for- 
mer relations with Rome, recalled Catholics, and exiled 
Protestant strangers, making severe laws to bear upon 
all Protestants who would attack her authority ' and 
her works. Her excessive rigor in dealing with here- 
tics, however, has cast a shadow of discredit upon her 
memory. Although Cardinal Pole, the legate of Pope 
Julius III, counseled tolerance, the Queen condemned 
about 200 reformers, on account of which she was 
called "Bloody Mary" by those who gave the title of 
"Good Queen Bess" to her cruel sister Elizabeth. 

206. Elizabeth (1558-1603) was the daughter of 
Anne Boleyn, and was raised a Protestant, though she 
publicly professed Catholicity during the reign of 
Queen Mary. She was crowned after the Catholic 
rite, and thereby compelled to take the oath that she 
would uphold the Catholic Faith. However, she soon 
declared herself in favor of Protestantism. She renewed 
the laws of Henry VIII and of Edward VI against the 
Church, and, by the Act of Uniformity, prescribed 
Cranmer's liturgy, and commanded the exacting of the 
"oath of supremacy". At a convocation of the Protes- 
tant clergy, the forty-two articles were reduced to 
thirty-nine. All who exercised any public function 
were obliged to take an oath of fidelity to the thirty- 
nine articles. Those who refused were styled papists, 
and were punished with confiscation, exile, imprison- 
ment or death. 

The Anglican Church differed from all other Protes- 
tant sects in recognizing a hierarchy of three orders 



154 PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 

of clergy. The Archbishop of Canterbury ordained 
other bishops, and the ordinal of Edward VI was 
recognized as the authorized ceremonial for the con- 
secration of bishops and for the ordination of priests. 
The Puritans, as well as the Presbyterians, (a purely 
Calvinistic party) who rejected the episcopal hierarchy, 
were termed dissidents, and these, as well as Catholics, 
were persecuted and put to death by hundreds. A 
terrible inquisition, called the Court of High Commis- 
sion, was established, and empowered to pronounce 
condemnation without the usual judicial inquiry. All 
Catholic priests were proscribed, as well as any one 
of the faithful who confessed to a priest or assisted at 
Mass. Such was the reign of the haughty and irritable 
Queen Elizabeth. Under her successors, the persecu- 
tions continued, with but short intermissions, until the 
end of the eighteenth century. 

IV. Scotland and Ireland 

207. Scotland.— In 1557 the Protestants of Scotland 
formed a league called the Congregation of Christ, in 
order to combat Catholicism, which they styled the 
Congregation of Satan. During the reign of Elizabeth, 
the impetuous reformer, John Knox, declared a "war 
unto death" against Catholics. The people, aroused by 
his preaching, pillaged the churches and convents, 
destroyed the images of the saints, and spread havoc 
throughout the country. The Scottish Church was 
organized under the Presbyterian form as at Geneva. 
A small proportion of the people remained faithful to 
the Catholic Church. The Catholic hierarchy was not 
restored until the days of Pope Leo XIII. 

208. Ireland. — The Irish alone, of all the northern 
nations, remained true to their religion. All efforts 
failed to pervert them. After a long and bloody strug- 
gle, Queen Elizabeth of England took possession of 
the entire country. She set up a vast hierarchy of 



PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 155 

Protestant archbishops, bishops and rectors, who did 
nothing, for they had no flocks to guard. The Cath- 
olics were obliged, nevertheless, to support them. 
Catholics were deprived of their property and of their 
political rights. A prize was offered to those who 
would apostatize, and send their children to the hereti- 
cal schools. Catholic priests were ordered to leave 
the country under pain of death. Under Cromwell, 
three hundred priests were martyred and one thousand 
sent into exile. During the reign of William of Orange, 
new persecutions were set on foot, and these continued 
with increasing violence during the reign of Queen 
Anne (1702-1714). Such tyranny, of which the history 
of civilized nations offers no other example, had to be 
suffered by a people whose only crime was loyalty to 
the Catholic Faith. 

V. Sects of Protestantism 

209. An invariable note of heresy is its restless- 
ness, its tendency to split into sects, and to alter its 
dogmas. Luther and Calvin could not keep their 
disciples within the limits they prescribed ; for the fun- 
damental maxim of Protestantism is, that every one 
should form his opinions for himself. Thus the new 
reform gave rise to Episcopalians and Presbyterians, 
Calvinists and Puritans, Baptists, Quakers, etc., all of 
which sects held different doctrines, and agreed only in 
their common hatred of the ancient Faith, and their 
objection to all authority. New teachers were con- 
tinually heard broaching new opinions, and confuting 
those of their masters. It is not astonishing that men 
should wander thus, when they disdain all guidance ; 
for, have they not rejected the Church which Jesus 
Christ commands all to hear? Not thus has it been 
with the Catholic Church. Her government and her 
conduct have never changed. Her doctrine is ever 
the same. She develops her definitions to meet heresies 
as they arise ; but her Faith has known neither addition 
nor diminution, — she is "the pillar and ground of 
truth". 



156 protestantism in various countries 

Topical Outline 

I 

201. Switzerland was divided into Catholic, Prot- 
estant, and mixed cantons. 

II 

202. The Protestants became a political and mili- 
tary party in France. 

Ill 

203. Henry VI 1 1 inaugurated the Reformation in 
England. 

204. Under Edward VI, Protestantism made rapid 
progress in England. 

205. Mary Tudor endeavored to re-establish Cath- 
olicity. 

206. Elizabeth declared in favor of Protestantism, 
and persecuted Catholics. 

IV 

207. John Knox organized the Scottish Church. 

208. Ireland remained true to the Faith. 

V 

209. The various sects agreed only in their hatred 
of the ancient Faith, and the rejection of all authority. 

See Notes: St. Bartholomew's Day, Guise. 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

The Reformation: "A History of the Protestant Reforma- 
tion in England and Ireland," by Win. Cobbett (B. B.). 
"The Protestant Reformation." by Rev. Charles Coppens, 
S. J. (B. H.). Ch. VIII, "Henry VIII Severs England 
from the Church." 

"Lectures on the History of Religions" (B. H.). Vol. 
IV, "The Thirty-Nine Articles;" "Lutheranism;" "Wes- 
leyanism ;" "Presbyterianism." 

"The Dawn of Modern England." History of the Ref- 
ormation in England (1509-1525), by Carlos Lumsden 
(L. G.). 



PROTESTANTISM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 157 

Henry VIII: "The King's Achievement," by R. H. Benson 
(B. H.). 

"Life and Writings of Blessed Thomas More," by Rev. 
T. E. Bridgett (B. B.). 

Elizabeth: "A Knight of God," by Edith M. Power (B. B.). 
"History of a Martyr." 

"The Wonderful Flower of Woxindon, An Historical 
Romance of the Time of Queen Elizabeth," by Rev. 
Jos. Spillmann, S. J. (B. H.). "Mary Stuart." 
"Life of Mary, Queen of Scots," by Donald MacLeod 
(P. J. K.). 

"Tyborne, and Who Went Thither, in the Days of Queen 
Elizabeth," by Miss Taylor (B. B.). 

"Wild Times," a Tale of the Days of Queen Elizabeth, 
by Cecilia Mary Caddell (B. B.). 

Queen Mary: "The Queen's Tragedy," by R. H. Benson 

(B. B.). 
Heroes of the Faith: "Conferences on the English Martyrs," 

by Dom Bede Cafnm (B. B.). 

Cardinals: "England's Cardinals," by Dudley Baxter (B. B.). 

Huguenots: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. Coler 
(F. D. B.). Ch. VIII, "The Daggers that were not 
Blessed." 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT 

210. Opening of the Council. — The spread of the 
Protestant heresy in Germany, as well as the need 
that was felt of certain reforms of discipline, created 
a universal desire that a council might be summoned 
to arrest the progress of error, and to heal the wounds 
that heresy had already inflicted upon the Church. 
After many difficulties, which the jealousies and self- 
ishness of the monarchs of Europe threw in his way, 
Pope Paul III at length issued the Bull of convocation 
in 1538. The city of Trent was selected, as uniting 
many advantages; but it was not until 1545 that all 
the obstacles were surmounted, and the council held 
its first session. The assembled prelates assisted at 
a solemn Mass of the Holy Ghost, and read the Creed, 
as was done in earlier councils, in order to show that 
they adhered steadfastly to the faith of the Church, 
and that their decrees would be only explanatory of 
that sacred deposit. They then laid down the points 
to be discussed, and the order in which these should 
be taken up. 

211. Decrees of the Council. — In the first place, it 
was unanimously decided that all the books of the 
Old and New Testaments, as contained in the Vulgate, 
were to be esteemed canonical, and that the unwritten 
traditions on faith and morals, which were handed 
down to us by the Apostles, should be received with 
equal reverence and respect. Then, in order to restrain 
turbulent spirits, the council decreed that in all matters 
touching faith and morals, no one should so far pre- 
sume on his own private judgment as to oppose the 
interpretation given them by Holy Church, to whom 
alone it pertains to judge of the true sense and inter- 
pretation of the sacred writings. The council further 
ordered that all who pervert the words of Scripture to 
profane uses, as, for example, to superstition, or jesting, 
or the like, should be punished as persons profaning 

(158) 



THE COUNCIL OF TRENT 159 

the word of God. The other sessions were devoted 
to the question of original sin, which can be effaced 
only by the merits of Jesus Christ applied in Holy 
Baptism; of the justification of the sinner; of the seven 
sacraments instituted by our Lord, especially the Holy 
Eucharist; of the sacrifice of the Mass; of penance, 
purgatory, indulgences, the veneration of the saints, 
etc. On all these subjects the errors of the Protestants 
were refuted and condemned. 

212. Close of the Council. — The council was 
brought to a close after many interruptions in 1563, 
under the pontificate of Pius IV. Despite all 
opposition, the truth triumphed gloriously, and God 
compelled the passions of men to subserve the glory 
of His Church. At the twenty-fifth and last session, 
all the decrees were solemnly read and subscribed. 
The pope confirmed the decrees, and urged the people 
to accept them with religious submission. From that 
moment, the definitions of Trent were included in the 
faith of the Church. The Council of Trent may be 
regarded as the complement and compendium of all 
the preceding councils. A creed was drawn up, in 
which were embodied the decisions of the assembled 
prelates; it is known and revered by Catholics as the 
Creed of Pope Pius IV. It is an amplification of the 
Nicene Creed. 

Topical Outline 

210. Pope Paul III convoked the Council of Trent. 

211. The errors of Protestantism were refuted and 
condemned. 

212. The decisions of the council are embodied in 
the Creed of Pope Pius IV. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Council of Trent: "Lectures on the History of Religions" 
(B. H.). Vol. Ill, "The Council of Trent." 
"History of the Church of God," by Rev. B. J. Spalding 
(S. K. F.). Seventh Epoch, Part IV. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

[NTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

I. Religious Life 

213. The Society of Jesus. — God, in His mercy, 
did not abandon His Church in her great trial. At no 
time, perhaps, was the Church more prolific of illus- 
trious saints than at this crisis, when she was torn 
by heresy and schism. Among these great and holy 
men we must mention, in the first place, St. Ignatius 
Loyola and St. Francis Xavier. St. Ignatius was bom 
in 1491, and chosen by God to defend and sustain 
the Church against Luther, Calvin and other heresi- 
archs of the time. When Henry VIII severed England 
from obedience to the pope, Ignatius laid the founda- 
tion of his order at Paris. He drew around him a 
few young men, noble-spirited like himself, and on 
the feast of the Assumption they made their vows in 
the crypt of the church of Montmartre. Besides St. 
Francis Xavier, the little band, before which heresy 
was doomed to tremble and recede, counted among its 
members Salmeron and Laynez, Bobadilla and Rod- 
riguez. Such was the beginning of the Society of 
Jesus, which has given to the Church so many eloquent 
defenders, so many masters of the science of the saints, 
so many intrepid martyrs and confessors. Just as the 
so-called Reformation was beginning its desolating 
ravages, God raised up this barrier to its excesses. 
Hence it is that never has a community been assailed 
with such unrelenting fury, or been compelled to suffer 
such continued persecution. The order grew and 
spread and still survives, after many storms, with its 
strength unimpaired, its devotion as fervent, its labors 
and sufferings as magnanimous and successful as ever. 

214. Other Congregations. — While the ancient 
religious orders were devoting themselves with 
renewed fervor to the work of their Divine vocation, 
other congregations were being formed. Some were 
founded for the instruction of the clergy and of the 

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INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 161 

people, others for the education of youth, others again 
for the care of the sick and the poor. 

215. Instruction of the Clergy and People. — 

(a) The Oratorians, founded by St. Philip Neri 
(1548), were an association of secular priests living in 
community under a rule, though they were not united 
by any particular vows. Among the earliest members 
was the celebrated Baronius, the author of the "Ecclesi- 
astical Annals". They were known as Oratorians 
because St. Philip and some of his associates held 
conferences in Christian doctrine and in Church 
History in the oratory of St. Jerome at Rome. They 
gradually added exercises of piety, intermingled with 
religious music and chant. Palestrina, who may be 
styled the great musical reformer of the sixteenth 
century, prepared a number of musical compositions 
to be used at the oratory, whence originated the name 
Oratorio. 

(b) The Congregation of Saint-Maur, a branch 
of the Order of St. Benedict, was distinguished by the 
erudition of its members, and the great development 
of learning which was brought about through their 
influence. They published important works on antiqui- 
ties, ecclesiastical history, and the Fathers of the 
Church. 

(c) The Sulpicians were founded by Rev. Jean- 
Jacques Olier, pastor of Saint-Sulpice, at Paris. Their 
chief purpose was the direction of seminaries. They 
are a society of secular priests living in community, but 
not bound by special vows. 

(d) The Eudists, without vows like the Sulpicians, 
were founded by the Venerable Father Eudes, in order 
to furnish instructors for the seminaries, and laborers 
for the missions. 

216. Preaching the Word of God. — (a) Capu- 
chins. — Some years before the foundation of the 
Society of Jesus, the Order of the Capuchins was 
formed in Italy (1525). King Charles IX invited them 
to France in 1573, and, through the exertions of St. 
Charles Borromeo, they came to Altdorf, Switzerland, 



162 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

in 1580. Archduke Ferdinand built them a cloister at 
Innsbruck, and convents were offered to them in Spain. 
In all the Catholic territories of the German Empire, 
convents of this order were established. The Capu- 
chin friars attained great influence during the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries by their extensive labors at 
home and in foreign missions. They have always 
succeeded in reaching the hearts of the people, and 
many provinces owe their restoration to the Catholic 
Faith, to the zeal and devotedness of these pious 
religious. 

(b) The Barnabites, having all things in common 
like the first Christians, were established in Milan in 
1530. They were austere preachers of penance, gave 
missions, ministered to hospitals and prisons, and 
devoted themselves to the education of youth, and to 
the formation of zealous priests in their seminaries. 

(c) The Priests of the Mission, called Lazarists 
or Vincentians, were established by St. Vincent de 
Paul (1625), and devoted themselves especially to 
missions at home and abroad, to works of charity, 
to preaching the word of God in the smaller villages 
and towns, and to the direction of seminaries for the 
secular clergy. 

(d) The Theatines, founded by St. Cajetan of 
Thiene (1524), devoted their energies to preaching, 
and to the care of the sick and infirm. 

217. Education of Youth.— (a) The Order of the 
Visitation was founded in 1618 by St. Francis de Sales 
and St. Frances de Chantal. Its members devoted 
themselves to the education of young girls, though 
their original and principal object was the care of 
the sick. 

(b) The Ursuline Congregation was founded by 
St. Angela Merici, in Italy (1537). The nuns devoted 
themselves principally to the education of girls, though 
they were also employed in the care of the sick. 

218. Service of the Sick and the Poor. — The Sisters 
of Charity were founded by St. Vincent de Paul (1633) 
to serve the poor, the sick, the insane, the prisoners, 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 163 

the orphans, the foundlings, and the afflicted of every 
description. In fact, no one can count the numbers 
that have died martyrs to duty on the battle-field, or 
among the plague-stricken, or in the hidden ways of 
continuous hard work for the poor. This is indeed an 
admirable institute, such as religion alone could have 
conceived, and one which none but the Catholic Church 
has been able to realize in practical form. Before the 
French Revolution, the Sisters of Charity counted 426 
establishments in Europe. 

II. Christian Art 

219. The Arts.— The Council of Trent had pro- 
tested against the theatrical nature of the music that 
had become prevalent in many churches. The musical 
composers of the time failed to adapt the music used 
in the churches to the religious sentiment expressed 
by the words of the sacred ritual. The Italian com- 
poser, Palestrina (1594), the most celebrated musician 
of the sixteenth century, by the charming simplicity 
of his melodies, and the powerful harmony of his 
polyphonic compositions, originated a most effective 
reaction in the direction of the desired reform. 

In architecture, Michelangelo Buonarroti ( 1475- 
1564), who is also one of the great masters in painting 
and sculpture, completed the work begun by Bramante, 
i. e., St. Peter's at Rome. One of his greatest paintings, 
"The Last Judgment", is a magnificent fresco adorn- 
ing the walls of the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican, 
Excepting the church of Saint-Sulpice (1646), in Paris, 
but few famous architectural works were produced 
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 

Painting, however, saw its greatest masters. In 
Italy, Raphael Santi (1483-1520), immortalized his 
name by his inimitable "Transfiguration", and his 
wonderful "Madonnas". Perugino, the teacher of 
Raphael, is also remarkable for his paintings of the 
Blessed Virgin. Leonardo da Vinci, Correggio, Titian 
and Bellini, Holbein, Duerer and others, added glory 
to the Church by their magnificent works of art for 
the embellishment of the house of God. 



164 internal life of the church 

Topical Outline 

I 

213. St. Ignatius founded the Society of Jesus. 

214. Congregations were founded for various pur- 
poses. 

215. Several congregations were devoted to 
instruction. 

216. Other congregations applied themselves to 
preaching. 

217. The Order of the Visitation, and the Ursu- 
lines, undertook the work of education. 

218. The Sisters of Charity served the poor and 
the sick. TT 

219. Music, architecture and painting revived 
during this period. 

See Notes: Oratorio. Bramante, Michelangelo. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Jesuits: "Who are the Jesuits?" by Rev. Charles Coppens, 
S. J. (B. H.), Ch. V, "Origin and Purpose of the 
Jesuits." 

"The Autobiography of St. Ignatius," edited by J. F. 
O'Connor, S. J. (P. J. K.). 

Education: "The Genius of Christianity." by Chateaubriand 
(J. M.). Part IV. Bk. VI, Ch. V, "Education." 

Sisters of Charity: "Jeanne Antide Thouret," a Short Life 

of the Venerable Mother Foundress of the Sisters of 

Charity, by B. P. Anderdon (B. B.). 

"Life of Mrs. Seton," by Rev. C. I. White, D. D. (P. J. K.). 

"Life of St. Vincent de Paul." by H. Bedford, M. A. 

(P. J. K.). Ch. XIII, "The Si>ters of Charity;" Ch. XX, 

"The Foreign Missions." 
Music: "The Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand (J. 

M.). Part III, Bk. I, Chs. I and II, "The Gregorian 

Chant." 
Vincentians: "History of St. Vincent de Paul," by Mon- 

seigneur Bougaud, Bishop of Laval. Translated by Rev. 

Joseph Brady, C. M. (L. G.). 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE CHURCH IN THE MISSIONS 

I. In America 

220. The Popes. — The Church, having lost many 
of her children in Europe through Protestantism, was 
compensated for the loss by acquiring great numbers 
of faithful children in the countries discovered by the 
Portuguese and Spanish explorers. In order to organ- 
ize these religious conquests in the New World, Pope 
Gregory XV instituted the College of the Propaganda, 
and Pope Urban VIII founded a seminary for the 
formation of missionaries. 

221. Missionary Labors. — America was discovered 
in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. His account of the 
wealth of this new world attracted, among others, a 
number of adventurers, men devoid of all religion and 
humanity, who perpetrated the most revolting cruel- 
ties. However, the ministers of the Gospel of Peace 
had accompanied the early explorers, and they taught 
the idolatrous inhabitants to know the God who had 
created them, and to worship Him alone. No obstacles 
could arrest the course of the holy missionaries. Many 
were cruelly murdered by the savage natives ; many 
perished from other causes ; but fresh volunteers ever 
came forward to take the place of those who had fallen 
in this glorious enterprise. And God gave His abun- 
dant blessings. In a few years numerous tribes of 
Indians, both in North and South America, submitted 
to the Gospel. A native priesthood was formed, and 
various sees were created and filled by holy and zealous 
pastors. The zeal of the missionaries extended also to 
the conquerors of the New World, many of whom were 
converted, and endeavored thenceforth to repair the 
scandal which their former cruelty and licentiousness 
had occasioned. 

222. Las Casas. — The early converts in America 
were, for many years, exposed to much vexation and 

(165) 



166 THE CHURCH IN THE MISSIONS 

oppression. They found an intrepid protector, how- 
ever, in the Bishop of Chiappa, in Guatemala, a prelate 
well known in history as Bartolome de las Casas. He 
was a Spanish monk of the Dominican Order, and came 
to America with Columbus. He spent fifty years in 
apostolic labor among the Indians, and crossed the 
ocean seven times to plead their cause at the court of 
Spain. He obtained for them exemption from slavery, 
and protected them from the tyranny of the Europeans. 
His memory is held in veneration by the Church. 

223. South America. — All the countries of South 
America, with San Domingo and Cuba, had their 
flourishing missions. The most popular of Catholic 
establishments were the Reductions of Paraguay. 
About 1555 a number of Spanish Jesuits came to 
Paraguay, and converted the wandering tribes by 
whom it was inhabited. They then undertook to 
civilize them by forming them into a nation, teaching 
them the trades and sciences, providing them with 
laws, and with all the benefits of social life. The 
converts were distributed into villages called Reduc- 
tions, having schools and workshops. They were 
provided with the necessaries of life, and were perfectly 
happy. However, the enemies of the Jesuits succeeded 
in having them recalled by the King of Spain, in 1767, 
and their hapless flocks soon relapsed into barbarism. 
This was one of the results produced by the so-called 
liberal philosophy of the eighteenth century, which was 
valiant in destroying good and noble works, but power- 
less in effecting any benefit for the State or for the 
welfare of the people. 

224. North America. — Beneath the cold sky of 
Labrador and Canada, the Gospel preached by zealous 
French missionaries produced wonderful fruits. Con- 
verts were made, and churches founded among the 
Hurons, the Esquimaux, the Algonquins. and number- 
less other tribes. The Illinois, in particular, were 
remarkable for a high degree of instruction. The wild 



THE CHURCH IN THE MISSIONS 167 

and ferocious Iroquois became fervent Christians by 
the power of Divine grace. A young virgin of this 
tribe, Catherine Tehgahkwita, died, as she had lived, 
in the odor of sanctity. It pleased God to grant her 
the gift of miracles. 

II. In Asia 

225. India. — The Portuguese established settle- 
ments in India, and at the same time founded bishoprics 
there. However, it was very difficult to convert the 
natives, owing to the fact that pagan or non-Christian 
civilization had already made rapid progress, and that, 
moreover, the Hindoos were much attached to their 
religious doctrines of Brahmanism and Buddhism. 
Nevertheless, St. Francis Xavier and his companions 
succeeded in converting a considerable number. 

226. Japan. — St. Francis Xavier made many con- 
verts in Japan, though Buddhism had likewise taken 
deep root in that country. The number of Christians 
soon rose to several hundred thousand, many of whom, 
during successive persecutions, won the crown of 
martyrdom. Finally, in 1638, the Dutch urged the 
Japanese to expel the Portuguese. Although the native 
converts were thus deprived of all spiritual succor, 
many communities of Christians still continued to 
exist, without priests and without sacraments, except 
baptism, which they administered themselves. 

227. China. — The Jesuits gained the favor of the 
Chinese government by their thorough knowledge of 
the native language, and by cultivating the mathemat- 
ical sciences. Father Ricci, being held in great esteem 
at the court, founded three hundred churches, one of 
which was at Pekin, the capital. In 1631 the Domin- 
icans entered this great missionary field, and converted 
many by their apostolic labors. 

III. Africa 

228. The Capuchins made many converts at 
Mozambique and along the eastern coast of Africa. 



168 THE CHURCH IN THE MISSIONS 

The region of the Congo was also visited by the mis- 
sionaries, but the climate and the natural depravity 
of the natives made it impossible to establish Christian 
communities. The king of Abyssinia was converted in 
1626, but his successor drove the missionaries from 
the country. 

Topical Outline 
I 

220. The popes took great interest in the missions. 

221. The missionaries followed the discoverers to 
the New World. 

222. Las Casas was the protector of the early 
converts. 

223. The Jesuits were active in South America. 

224. Many converts were made among the Indian 
tribes of North America. 

II 

225. St. Francis Xavier converted many in India. 

226. Japan produced many martyrs. 

227. The Jesuits and Dominicans made converts 
in China. 

Ill 

228. The Capuchins labored in Africa. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Missions: "The Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand 
(J. M.h Part V, Bk. Ill, Chs. Ill to VIII. 

Missions in North America: "The Master Motive," a Tale 
of the Days of Champlain, by L. Conan (B. H.). 
"Three Indian Tales," from the German, by Helena 
Long (B. H.). 

"Hiawatha's Black Robe" (Fr. Marquette), by E. Leahy 
(B. H.). 

"Pioneer Priests of North America," by Rev. J. Camp- 
bell, S. J. (A. P.). 

"Catholic Pioneers of America," by J. O'Kane Murray 
(H. L. K.). 



THE CHURCH IN THE MISSIONS 169 

Las Casas: '"The Life of Bartolome de Las Casas," by- 
Rev. L. A. Dutto (B. H). 

Missions in Canada: "The Life of Father Isaac Jogues, S. J.," 
by Rev. F. Martin, S. J. (B. B.). 

Martyrs of Japan: "Victories of the Martyrs," by St. Alphon- 
sus de Liguori (B. B.). 

"Life of the Blessed Charles Spinola, S. J.," with a Sketch 
of Other Japanese Martyrs (P. J. K.). 
"Laurentia," a Tale of the Jesuit Missions in Japan, by 
Lady Georgiana Fullerton (B. B.). 
"The Queen's Nephew," Rev. Jos. Spillmann, S.J. (B. H.). 

Missions in China: "Valeria;" and Other Stories, by Miss 
Sadlier (P. J. K.). "Chinese Flag." 

New Zealand: "The Church in New Zealand," America, 
Vol. VIII, No. 14, P. 332. 



SEVENTH PERIOD 

ALEXANDER VII TO PIUS VI (1655-1799) 

CHAPTER XXIX 

HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

229. Alexander VII (1655-1667) .—Pope Alexander 
governed the Church with wisdom and prudence. He 
was a great patron of learning, and gathered many 
illustrious men about the papal court. He did much 
to beautify Rome, and also made extensive additions 
to the Vatican library. The conversion of Christina, 
daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, and Queen of Sweden, 
was an important event of Alexander's pontificate. 
The queen abdicated the throne and went to Rome, 
where she remained until her death. 

230. Clement IX (1667-1669).— Pope Clement was 
distinguished for his extreme charity, and his great 
affability toward great and small. He temporarily 
pacified the quarrelsome Jansenists in France, and sup- 
ported Venice against the aggressions of the Turks, 
who, notwithstanding, took possession of the island 
of Candia, after a gallant defense that had lasted twenty 
years. In 1668 he declared blessed the first American 
saint, Rose of Lima. 

231. Innocent XI (1675-1689) exerted himself to 
promote discipline among the clergy and people, and 
by a decree of February 12, 1679, encouraged frequent 
and even daily Communion. He had the satisfaction of 
seeing the progress of the Turks in the East finally 
checked by the brilliant victory of John Sobieski, King 

(170) 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 171 

of Poland, before the gates of Vienna (1683), and lived 
to see the expulsion of the Turks from Hungary, and 
the capture of Belgrade (1688). 

232. Benedict XIV (1740-1758) was one of the 
most distinguished pontiffs that sat upon the throne 
of Peter. He restored order in the government of the 
Papal States, and regulated with great wisdom numer- 
ous difficulties that arose in Spain, Portugal, Austria 
and Sicily. He renewed the condemnation pronounced 
by his predecessor against Freemasonry, and labored 
zealously at the reform and the education of the clergy. 
At Rome, he founded four academies for the study of 
(a) Christian antiquities, (b) the history of the Church 
and of the councils, (c) the history of canon law, (d) the 
liturgy. He established a Christian museum, and 
enriched the Vatican library with the purchase of the 
Ottobonian library, consisting of 3,300 manuscripts. 
He founded chairs of chemistry and mathematics in 
the Roman university, and many others for painting, 
sculpture, etc., in other schools. Though he was held 
in great esteem throughout the world for his learn- 
ing, his statesmanship, and his apostolic zeal, yet his 
fame rests principally on his admirable ecclesiastical 
writings. 

233. Pius VI (1775-1799) was elected after a con- 
clave that lasted four months. He was distinguished 
for his rare intellectual culture, joined to an extreme 
mildness of disposition. During his pontificate he had 
much to suffer from Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, 
and other rulers of Catholic countries. At the request 
of the American clergy, Pius VI erected the See of 
Baltimore in 1789. After the French revolution the 
pope was obliged to surrender Avignon and other 
possessions to France. The French took Rome in 
1798, and proclaimed the Roman Republic. Because 
the pope refused to acknowledge the republic, he was 
forcibly taken from Rome, and, though seriously ill, 
he was hurried over the Alps to Grenoble, then to 
Valence, where he died at the age of 81 years. 



172 historical view of the papacy 

Topical Outline 

229. Alexander VII was a great patron of learning. 

230. Clement IX supported Venice against the 
Turks. 

231. Innocent XI issued salutary decrees to pro- 
mote piety and discipline. 

232. Benedict XIV, distinguished for his devotion 
to science and learning, ranks among the greatest 
popes. 

233. Pius VI saw Rome proclaimed a republic, and 
died a prisoner. 

See Notes: Gustavus Adolphus, Sobieski, conclave, 
Joseph II. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Sobieski: "In the Turkish Camp, and Other Stories," from 
the German (B. II.). "The Skull of Kara Mustapha;" 
"John Sobieski." 

St. Rose of Lima: "Life of St. Rose of Lima," by Rev. F. W. 
Faber, D. D. (P. J. K.). 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

I. Jansenism 

234. Jansenius. — The Jansenist errors, which pro- 
duced so much evil in France, did not originate in that 
country. Their author was Baius, a doctor at Louvain, 
in Belgium. He, however, retracted his false teachings 
before his death. His doctrines, unfortunately, did not 
die with him, but were propagated in many of the 
schools by his disciples. Jansenius had imbibed these 
errors while studying theology at Louvain and Paris. 
It was he who brought this heresy formally and pub- 
licly to light in a work entitled "Augustinus", which, 
however, was not published until after his death. 
During his stay in Paris, Jansenius had contracted 
friendship with several priests and doctors of the Sor- 
bonne, who had become infected with the same errors. 
Through their combined efforts, the new opinions made 
rapid progress, and the plausibility of the system 
misled many, even such learned men as St-Cyran, 
Arnauld, Nicole, and Pascal. The hotbed of the heresy 
was Port-Royal, a monastery near Paris. Though 
Jansenius gave his name to a heresy, he was not himself 
a heretic, but lived and died in the bosom of the 
Church. 

235. Errors. — Out of an affected respect for the 
sacraments, the Jansenists induced their disciples to 
abstain from receiving Holy Communion even at those 
special times required by the Church. Their teaching 
was of a most gloomy and discouraging nature. They 
taught that God imputes to us even those faults which 
we cannot avoid. Jesus Christ, according to their 
doctrine, died on the cross to save only a few privileged 
and elect souls, and not the whole race of man. Such 
teaching was enough to destroy all confidence in God, 
and to drive men to despair. 

(173) 



174 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

236. Opposition. — In the Society of Jesus, that 
watchful guardian of the Lord's heritage, the Jansenists 
found unwearied opponents, or, let us rather say, 
devoted brethren, who employed every argument that 
reason could suggest to bring them back to the truth, 
but without success. One of the Jansenists, a rigorist, 
known as the deacon Francois de Paris, who died in 
1727, was raised by the sect to the honor of sanctity, 
and his tomb became the resort of the misguided and 
fanatical multitude. Fake miracles were performed, 
and were attested by priests, doctors and magistrates, 
who were either dupes or accomplices. These 
impostors soon became the subject of popular ridicule, 
and were dispersed by the police, who closed the 
cemetery in 1732. The chief defender of the Faith was 
Christopher de Beaumont, Archbishop of Paris, whose 
virtues and untiring labors did much to repress the 
heresy. He was persecuted by the heretics, and 
repeatedly banished from his see, but never ceased in 
his efforts to unmask their dangerous delusion. The 
heresy, defeated in the field of argument and con- 
demned by the Holy See, was crushed amid the general 
destruction caused by the Revolution, and though it 
still numbers a few adherents scattered in France and 
in Holland, it has ceased to have a separate existence. 

II. Philosophism 

237. Modern Philosophy. — The Catholic Church, 
which during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
had so valiantly opposed the attacks of Protestantism, 
was now called upon to defend itself against a more 
formidable enemy. The fundamental principle of Prot- 
estantism, which permitted every man to explain the 
Holy Scriptures according to his own judgment, led 
the way to rationalism, i. e., to the religion of reason, 
or infidelity. The movement began in England, where 
these infidels styled themselves free-thinkers, and 
professed to believe only what could be proved by the 
senses or by experience. In the eighteenth century, it 
spread over France and Germany, in the form of 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 175 

rationalism or deism, which acknowledged the exist- 
ence of God, but denied all Divine revelation. In the 
nineteenth century, it finally developed into material- 
ism, which denies the existence of God and of the 
human soul, and constitutes one of the greatest evils 
that threaten society and religion at the present day. 

238. France.— While Philip, Duke of Orleans, 
acted as regent for the boy-king, Louis XV (1715- 
1774), infidelity, which had been repressed during the 
reign of Louis XIV, boldly loomed up and assailed 
everything that Christianity held most sacred. Philip, 
being utterly devoid of religion, abandoned himself to 
the most degrading vices. Around him was gathered 
a group, of free-thinkers. Confiding in his protection, 
they declared against Christianity a war which lasted 
throughout the eighteenth century, and eventually led 
to one of the most cruel persecutions the Church has 
ever known. At first, anonymous pamphlets, which 
directly assailed religion and morality, were circulated, 
because the self-styled philosophers feared public opin- 
ion ; by degrees, however, they engaged in open and 
deadly strife, which culminated in the French 
Revolution. 

239. Voltaire (1694-1778).— Voltaire was as 
remarkable for his talents as for the bad use he made of 
them. He was born in Paris, and was educated by the 
Jesuits. His success in literature and poetry filled him 
with self-sufficiency and pride. Condemned by the 
French Parliament for his irreligious and seditious 
writings, he left France, spent some time in England, 
then passed into Germany. Here he was gladly wel- 
comed by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who, like 
Voltaire himself, hated Jesus Christ and His Gospel, 
and furiously assailed the Church. Voltaire became the 
leader and the soul of the infidel movement in Europe. 
His genius was rich and fertile, but his character and 
morals were in keeping with his impiety. He hated the 
very name of our Divine Lord, and swore that he would 
devote his life to the overthrow of religion. "In twenty 



176 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

years," he said one day, "the Galilean will be no more." 
Twenty years passed and the enemy of Jesus Christ 
died a miserable death, crying in despair: "I am for- 
saken by God and man." 

240. John J. Rousseau. — Rousseau was another 
writer distinguished for his style. Like Voltaire, he 
led a wicked life, and, disregarding all revealed religion, 
he labored to replace it by a natural religion. He 
believed in God, yet he would not be either a Catholic 
or a Protestant. In his writings, he strove to inculcate 
the principles that the State must be the supreme and 
only head of society, that it must direct all things, 
including religion, and that anyone who disobeyed the 
State must be punished with death. Thus Rousseau 
completed the anti-Christian propaganda of Voltaire. 
The latter strove to turn men away from their alle- 
giance to God by rejecting the Divine doctrine, while 
Rousseau dissuaded men from obedience to the Church. 
In the book entitled "The Social Contract", which 
appeared in 1762, Rousseau teaches that society has a 
total and absolute power over every one of its mem- 
bers, and that "the will of the people" is the supreme 
law, to which the individual must submit in all things. 
This work furnished the principles that inspired the 
leaders of the French Revolution and of modern 
Socialism. 

241. Other Writers— D'Alembert, Diderot, Hel- 
vetius, Montesquieu, and others, being all men of talent 
and of one mind with Voltaire, their leader, set them- 
selves to sap the foundations of religion and of social 
order, that, as they said, they might regenerate the 
world. Under the auspices of these men, who assumed 
the title of Philosophers, i. e., friends of wisdom, philos- 
ophism penetrated to the lowest ranks of society. 
France was flooded with bad books and pamphlets, so 
that in a few years this false philosophy changed the 
spirit and character of a great nation, broke every bond 
of society, and left its votaries no other principle of 
action than selfishness. In our day, Socialism has 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 177 

adopted the selfsame tactics, and, unless the nations 
rise up to oppose the spread of this pernicious poison, 
we may look forward to similar results. 

242. Other Countries. — The writings of the infidel 
philosophers were welcomed with enthusiasm in other 
countries, such as Prussia, Spain and Portugal, where 
they prepared the way for a series of revolutions which 
laid waste the fairest countries of Europe. The French 
language was used at the German courts during the 
eighteenth century, and this opened the door to infi- 
delity. Frederick II, and the principal representatives 
of the rapidly developing national literature, Goethe, 
Lessing, and Schiller, paid allegiance to the novel 
tenets of free-thought. The German philosopher Kant 
advocated the religion of reason, while Fichte taught 
plain atheism. 

243. The Suppression of the Society of Jesus.— 
The principle of pride, on which the philosophism of 
the eighteenth century rested, was as fatal to the spirit- 
ual as to the temporal order. While endeavoring to 
hide the pernicious tendencies of their theories, the 
philosophers postponed the accomplishment of their 
ultimate design, the destruction of government, and 
contented themselves with plotting the annihilation of 
the Society of Jesus, their most dreaded opponent. 
The Jesuits stood forward as the intrepid defenders of 
religion and society, and thus had the honor of being 
the special objects of the hatred and calumnies of 
philosophers, heretics and tepid Catholics. The strug- 
gle began in Portugal. The Marquis of Pombal, the 
vindictive and cruel prime minister of Joseph I at Lis- 
bon, gave the signal for a decisive blow. The Jesuits 
were involved in a pretended conspiracy against the 
life of. the king, defamatory libels were circulated to 
their prejudice in various parts of Europe, and the 
pope was requested to suppress the order. He refused, 
however, and the enemies of the Society of Jesus pro- 
ceeded to open violence. This excited great indignation 
in Europe, but soon a minister of kindred spirit induced 



178 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

the Spanish Government to proscribe the order 
throughout its dominions. France yielded to the Duke 
of Choiseul, a partisan of the new philosophy, and 
followed the example of Spain. Without even a form 
of legal process, the colleges of the Jesuits were closed, 
their novitiates destroyed, and their property confis- 
cated. Their worst enemies were parliamentary 
Jansenists, who rejoiced to humble and crush those 
who had so long combated their errors and unmasked 
their disguises. To further satisfy their vengeance, 
the philosophers and Jansenists resolved to extort from 
the pope a decree which should formally and forever 
abolish the order. The possessions of the Church in 
various kingdoms were confiscated, and the pope was 
informed that they would not be restored until the 
Jesuits had ceased to exist. Clement XIV exhausted 
every expedient of delay, and finally, hoping that he 
would thus restore peace to the Church, signed the 
decree which suppressed the Society of Jesus (1773). 
The philosophers shouted for joy, and hailed the dawn 
of the day that marked their fiendish victory. 

244. Freemasons. — The cities of Europe were at 
this time infested with the members of a numerous and 
powerful society. They called themselves Freemasons, 
and held their meetings secretly and in retired places. 
They originated in 1717 in England, where the seeds 
of infidel opinions had first been sown. At London, 
a number of societies or guilds united for the purpose 
of "building the Temple of Humanity", that is, of 
constructing a form of religion agreeable to "noble- 
minded" men, but wherein every supernatural revela- 
tion should be absolutely rejected. Though the ends 
and agencies of this society were known to a few of 
the initiated only, so much was certain, that it aimed 
chiefly to paralyze and weaken religion and to subvert 
social order. Popes Clement XII and Benedict XIV, 
after due consideration, proscribed the society to all 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 179 

Catholics under pain of excommunication ; but the evil 
went on increasing, and Europe was infested with a 
host of conspirators who awaited only the signal for 
revolt. That signal was given by France. Louis XVI 
was on the throne, and philosophism deemed the time 
opportune to inaugurate its golden age of liberty. 
How well the enemies of the Church and of society 
succeeded, the records of the "Reign of Terror" amply 
testify. 

Topical Outline 
I 

234. Jansenius propagated the false teachings of 
Baius. 

235. The teachings of the Jansenists tended to 
destroy confidence in God. 

236. Their chief opponents were the Jesuits and 
the Archbishop of Paris. 

II 

237. Rationalism originated in England. 

238. Free-thinkers prepared the way for the French 
Revolution. 

239. Voltaire became the leader of the infidel 
movement in Europe. 

240. Rousseau's writings aimed at the destruction 
of Christianity. 

241. Other writers flooded France with bad books. 

242. These evil influences spread to other coun- 
tries. 

243. The Jesuits were suppressed by a decree of 
Pope Clement XIV. 

244. The Freemasons of Europe labored to sub- 
vert the social order. 

See Notes: Louvain, Sorbonne, St-Cyran, Arnauld,' 
Nicole, Pascal, rationalism, deism, materialism, Port-Royal. 



180 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

Jansenists: "Life of St. Vincent de Paul," by Henry Bed- 
ford, M. A. (P. J. K.). Ch. XIX, "Vincent and Jan- 
senism." 

Philosophism: "The Old Chest," by Anna T. Sadlier (P. J. 
K.). Ch. XIV, "Philosophy." 

Suppression of the Jesuits: "The Romance of a Jesuit," by 
G. de Beugny d'Hagerue (B. B.). 

"Who Are the Jesuits?" by Charles Coppens, S. J. (B. H.). 
Ch. X, "Suppression of the Society." 

Freemasons: "God, the Teacher of Mankind, and the Church 
and Her Enemies," by Michael Mueller, C. SS. R. (B. B.). 
"Freemasonry and Catholicity in America" (Pamphlet, 
Catholic Mind, A. P.), by Rev. Michael Kenny, S. J. 

Socialism: "Two and Two Make Four," by Bird S. Coler 
(F. D. B.). Ch. XI, "Socialism." 



CHAPTER XXXI 

INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

I. Religious Life 

245. The Brothers of the Christian Schools.— A 
congregation known as that of the Christian Brothers, 
was founded in 1680 by St. John Baptist cle la Salle. 
This holy priest was profoundly affected by the igno- 
rance which was one of the primary causes of the vices 
of the poor, and he devoted his life and his substance 
to destroy these vices at their root, by establishing 
schools in which children would be taught the pure 
doctrine of the Gospel and the practice of all Christian 
virtues. He established a novitiate at Reims, and 
another at Rouen, in France, and had the consolation 
of seeing his institute spread and consolidate itself 
before his death (1719). His numerous children, 
strongly imbued with his apostolic spirit, are still 
laboring most successfully in all parts of the world, 
sowing the seed of God's word in the hearts of the 
young, and imparting to them a truly Christian edu- 
cation. 

246. The Redemptorists. — The Congregation of 
the Most Holy Redeemer, whose members are gen- 
erally known as the Redemptorists, was founded in 
1732 by St. Alphonsus Mary Liguori. This saint, 
whose name is one of the most illustrious in the history 
of the Church, was born near Naples in 1696. He was 
ordained to the priesthood in 1726, and devoted himself 
to preaching and to the work of the missions. While 
thus engaged, he planned the foundation of a new 
congregation for the purpose of providing missionaries 
for the neglected country people in the neighborhood 
of Naples. From the date of its origin to the present 
day, the congregation has enjoyed a constant and rapid 
growth, and its labors in the vineyard of the Lord 
have been blessed with great success. 

(181) 



182 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

247. The Passionists. — The Congregation of the 
Passion was founded in Italy by St. Paul of the Cross 
about 1727. The distinctive spirit of the institute is 
the practice and promotion of devotion to the Passion 
of Our Lord. It is a congregation of priests devoted 
to missionary work and to the preaching of "Jesus 
Christ, and Him crucified", according to the words of 
the Apostle St. Paul. In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV 
approved the rules of the institute, and Clement XIV 
gave to St. Paul and his companions the church of 
Saints John and Paul in Rome, with the large house 
annexed to it on Monte Celio, and this is the mother- 
house of the congregation to the present day. 

E"~ 

II. Worship and Art 

248. Feasts and Fasts. — At the beginning of this 
period there were thirty-two holydays of obligation 
observed throughout the Catholic world. In 1728, 
Spain requested Pope Benedict XIII to diminish the 
number, whereupon the sovereign pontiff restricted the 
number of holydays to sixteen. In 1745 the same 
concession was granted to Austria. Finally, Clement 
XIV removed the obligation of attending Mass on 
certain holydays on which servile work had been per- 
mitted. The same pope abrogated the fasts that had 
been prescribed for the vigils of the feasts of the 
Apostles, and ordered instead the fasts on all Wednes- 
days and Fridays of Advent. 

The devotion of the Stations or Way of the Cross, 
as a substitute for the pilgrimage to the holy places 
at Jerusalem, came into common use during this period. 
In 1686 Innocent XI granted to the Franciscans the 
right to erect Stations in their churches. He moreover 
declared that all the indulgences that had ever been 
given for visiting the actual scenes of Christ's Passion 
could be gained by the active or affiliated members of 
the order if they made the Way of the Cross in their 
own churches. Pope Benedict XIII extended this 
privilege to all the faithful in 1726. Clement XII 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 183 

permitted the indulgence*! Stations to all the churches, 
and definitely fixed their number at fourteen. One of 
the most popularly attended Ways of the Cross at the 
present day is that of the Coliseum at Rome, where 
every Friday the devotion of the Stations is conducted 
publicly by a Franciscan Father. 

249. Canonization of the Saints. — Pope Sixtus V 
established the Sacred Congregation of Rites for the 
purpose of examining and discussing all matters 
referring to the canonization of the saints. The process 
is long, complicated, and expensive, yet so wisely 
regulated and so minutely detailed as to show forth 
the admirable wisdom with which the Church deter- 
mines the reasons for her belief in the holiness of those 
whom she proposes to place upon her altars. 

250. Christian Art. — The principal representatives 
of the art of religious painting in the seventeenth cen- 
tury were Murillo in Spain, and Rubens in the Nether- 
lands. Murillo combined rare excellence in coloring 
with the deepest feeling and devotion. From the fre- 
quency and fondness with which he represented the 
Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, he was called 
the "Painter of the Conception". Rubens' great master- 
pieces, the "Crucifixion" and the "Descent from the 
Cross", have been preserved in the cathedral at 
Antwerp, and rank among the finest creations of art. 

Topical Outline 
I 

245. St. John Baptist de la Salle founded the Con- 
gregation of the Christian Brothers in 1680. 

246. St. Alphonsus founded the Congregation of 
the Most Holy Redeemer in 1732. 

247. St. Paul of the Cross founded the Congrega- 
tion of the Passion about 1727. 



184 INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

II 

248. The number of holydays of obligation was 
gradually diminished. 

249. Pope Sixtus V established the Sacred Con- 
gregation of Rites. 

250. Murillo and Rubens were the representative 
painters of religious art in the seventeenth century. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Feasts: "Explanation of the Catholic Liturgy," by Abbe 
Dutilliet (J. M.). Part I, "Sacred Vestments;" Part II, 
"Principal Functions of the Liturgy;" Part III, "The 
Feasts of the Church;" Appendix, "Pontifical Cere- 
monies." 

Saints: "The Canonization of Saints," by Rev. Thomas F. 
Macken (B. B.). Ch. X, "The Process Regarding 
Miracles." 

"Flowers from the Catholic Kindergarten," or Stories 
from the Childhood of the Saints, by Rev. F. Hattler 
(B. B.). 



EIGHTH PERIOD 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

CHAPTER XXXII 

251. Causes. — There were principally three causes 
that combined to unsettle men's minds, and to bring 
about the grave political convulsions which shook 
Europe at the close of the eighteenth century. These 
causes were : (a) the infidel philosophism, which 
destroyed all sense of duty and honor; (b) the machi- 
nations of secret societies, directed against all forms of 
government; (c) the abuses which pervaded every 
branch of the administration of government. Most of 
the rulers were corrupted by the impiety which they 
had welcomed and fostered ; and as they had rebelled 
against God, their subjects rebelled against them. A 
wise reform might have remedied the evil ; but the 
theories of anarchy had pervaded the masses of the 
people to such an extent that they openly rejected, or 
at least lent a deaf ear to the Catholic doctrine on 
authority. Freemasonry, too, played an important part 
in the French Revolution. The leaders and principal 
members of the committees and clubs that directed 
the revolutionary action were furnished by the lodges. 
In a few years the advocates of liberty and fraternity 
wielded a tyranny more atrocious than any recorded 
in history. The clergy, the teachers of pure morality 
and of obedience to authority, were doomed to be the 
first victims of triumphant philosophism. 

252. Confiscation of Church Property. — Louis 
XVI, King of France, was a pious prince ; yet he lacked 
the energy that such a crisis demanded, and was thus 
led to imagine that an assembly of the States General 
would remedy the evils that were distracting society. 
The Assembly was composed of representatives of the 

(185) 



186 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

clergy, of the nobles, and of the third estate or common 
people. The States had no sooner convened, than a 
Constituent Assembly was organized, which proceeded 
at once to the work of confiscation. Asserting that all 
the possessions of the Church belonged to the State, 
the Assembly began to sell the greater part of the 
Church property, and suppressed all religious orders. 
There existed in France more than 12,000 abbeys, 
convents, and other religious houses which afforded 
a shelter to learning and virtue. These houses con- 
tained precious collections of literature and art, many 
of which the revolutionists buried in promiscuous ruin. 
Philosophism destroyed in one day the work of ages, 
in spite of the efforts and remonstrances of the bishops 
and the clergy. 

253. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy.— The 
religious orders being removed, the Church itself 
became the object of attack. Lawyers, imbued with 
anti-Christian ideas, drew up a plan of reform. They 
reduced the number of bishoprics from 134 to 83, 
apportioning one to each of the departments into which 
they divided the country. The bishops were to be 
elected by popular vote, and to receive their canonical 
appointment from the metropolitan bishop, but not 
from the pope. The only act of submission to the Holy 
See which was permitted was the forwarding of a letter 
to announce their appointment, and to declare their 
communion with Rome. The pastors were to be chosen 
by the electors of each district. This reform was 
called the civil constitution of the clergy. No ecclesi- 
astic could be nominated to any charge without taking 
the oath of the constitution. Pope Pius VI issued a 
Bull in 1791, forbidding the clergy to obey these 
prescriptions. Owing to this condemnation, the 
Assembly seized Avignon, which had belonged to the 
pope, and put to death 600 of the inhabitants, whose 
only crime was fidelity to the Church. 

254. The Clergy during the Revolution.— The 
Assembly, which now called itself the Legislative 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 187 

Assembly, forbade the wearing of any ecclesiastical 
costume, and condemned to exile all priests who 
refused to take the oath. From the 2nd to the 6th of 
September, 1792, 111 priests were massacred at Paris 
in the Convent of the Carmelites, and others in the 
abbey of St. Germain. Similar horrors were enacted 
at Meaux, Reims, Lyons and Versailles. More than 
30,000 priests are said to have fled to neighboring coun- 
tries, while others remained in disguise, administering 
the sacraments to the faithful at the peril of their lives. 
Among the latter was the saintly William Joseph 
Chaminade, who subsequently became the founder of 
the Society of Mary. Many priests were mutilated for 
concealing the sacred vessels. At Angers, they were 
shut up in prison and treated with frightful cruelty. 
More than 40,000 churches, chapels and oratories were 
torn down by the revolutionists ; others were turned 
into stables, shops, dwellings, theaters and club-houses. 
Bells, crucifixes, chalices, and all kinds of church 
ornaments were destroyed or stolen by the pretended 
friends of the "rights of man". 

255. The Worship of Reason. — We must pass over 
the judicial executions of Louis XVI and of the ill-fated 
queen, Marie Antoinette ; nor does it become us to 
dwell on the succeeding scenes of terror any further 
than to point out the character of the great reform 
preached by the philosophers, the "regeneration of the 
world" announced by the secret societies, the promised 
golden age of reason. For ten hideous years the history 
of religion in France is written in characters of blood. 
In 1793 the National Convention, which then held 
sway, abolished the Christian religion by a solemn 
decree, and proclaimed the worship of "Reason". 
Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris became a Temple of 
Reason, wherein political rather than moral doctrines 
were taught. The example given by the capital was 
followed in the provinces, where all of the city 
churches, and a number of those in the country, were 
closed to Catholic worship. Many churches were 
pillaged and profaned, the images of the saints muti- 



188 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

lated, and the crucifixes dragged through the streets 
amid yells of scorn and derision. The death of Robes- 
pierre, the monster of the Reign of Terror, restored 
some degree of order and peace, but the work of 
irreligion was not yet accomplished, so long as the 
See of Peter, the rallying point of the oppressed and 
persecuted faithful, remained unharmed. 

256. The Concordat. — General Bonaparte, having 
obtained control of affairs, was acknowledged supreme 
in command under the title of First Consul. He soon 
realized that he could not establish public order with- 
out granting peace to the Church, and consequently he 
set about to negotiate an official reconciliation between 
France and the Holy See. This he accomplished by 
means of the Concordat, which was an agreement 
formulated in seventeen articles, according to which 
the Catholic religion was to be officially re-established 
in France. The Concordat was signed at Paris, and 
subsequently ratified by the pope in 1801, though it 
was not published until 1802. Catholic worship was 
thereby restored in spite of every obstacle. The 
churches were reopened, many zealous priests returned, 
and several communities devoted to education sprang 
into existence. An entirely new distribution of dioceses 
was effected, and the constitutional bishops that did 
not submit to the new order of things were everywhere 
deposed. 

257. Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. — When Napo- 
leon Bonaparte was declared emperor in 1804, he 
prevailed upon Pope Pius VII to crown him at Paris. 
Soon, however, grave difficulties began to arise between 
the pope and the emperor. Napoleon, having decreed 
a general blockade of all European ports against the 
English, demanded that the pope close the ports of his 
kingdom as well. The sovereign pontiff, being the 
father of all the faithful, refused to comply. Napoleon 
thereupon invaded Rome in 1809, and declared the 
States of the Church incorporated in the Kingdom of 
Italy. Pius VII protested and excommunicated the 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 189 

emperor. Napoleon then ordered the pope to be seized 
and carried off to France. The Roman States were 
divided into departments and were administered by 
prefects, while Napoleon conferred upon his infant son 
the title of King of Rome. On his return from the 
disastrous Russian campaign in 1812, Napoleon 
attempted to wrest from the pope concessions fatal to 
the independence of the Church. Hoping thereby to 
restore peace to the Church, the pope was at first 
inclined to yield to some of the emperor's demands ; 
subsequently, however, he refused to treat of business 
except in his own capital. In 1814 Napoleon, finding 
that his generals were falling away on all sides, and 
being hard pressed by the allied armies, consented to 
send the pope back to Rome. Not long after, he fell 
from power, and Louis XVIII was restored to the 
throne. Pius VII devoted himself with ardor to the 
restoration of peace and order in the Church. He died 
in 1823, at the age of eighty-three years, twenty-three 
of which he had passed on the throne of Peter. So 
gentle was his character, that Napoleon himself com- 
pared him to a lamb. His piety was solid and deep, 
and his pontificate will ever be remembered as one of 
the most stormy and yet most glorious epochs of the 
Church's history. 

Topical Outline 

251. Philosophism, secret societies and govern- 
mental abuses led to the French Revolution. 

252. Church property was confiscated and relig- 
ious orders were suppressed. 

253. The Church itself became the object of attack. 

254. The clergy were persecuted, exiled, or put to 
death. 

255. The Christian religion was abolished. 

256. The Concordat restored Catholic worship. 

257. Difficulties arose between Napoleon and Pope 
Pius VII. 

See Notes: Louis XVI, States General, William Joseph 
Chaminade, Marie Antoinette, Robespierre, Reign of Terror, 
Directory, Concordat, Louis XVIII. 



190 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

French Revolution: "Historical Tales of the French Revo- 
lution" (B. B.). 

"Commandant La Raison," by Charles Hericault (P. 
J. K.). 

"The Story of the War in La Vendee," by Geo. J. Hill, 
M. A. (P. J. K.). 

"The Red Inn of St. Lyphar," by Anna T. Sadlier (B. B.). 
"La Vendee." 

"The Papal Envoy during the Reign of Terror," edited 
by the Abbe Bridier (B. H.). 

"The Queen's Fillet," by Cannon P. A. Sheehan, D. D. 
A Study of the French Revolution (L. G.) 

The Church: "History of the Catholic Church in the Nine- 
teenth Century," by Rev. James MacCafTrey (B. H.). 
Vol. I, Ch. I, "The Church in France," 1789-1848. 



NINTH PERIOD 



FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE NINE- 
TEENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

258. Pius VII (1800-1823) signed concordats with 
most of the princes of Europe. In the United States, 
he erected, in 1808, the Dioceses of Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia and Bardstown, with Baltimore as the 
metropolitan see. To these were added those of 
Charleston and Richmond in 1820, and that of Cin- 
cinnati in 1821. The most memorable event of the 
pontificate of Pius VII was the restoration of the 
Papal States. At the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), 
these were again placed under papal jurisdiction with 
their primitive boundaries, though Avignon was still 
held by France. Pope Pius VII restored the suppressed 
Society of Jesus in various countries, and eventually 
extended their field of action to the Universal Church, 
by a Bull issued 7 August, 1814. During his reign, 
Rome was the favorite abode of artists, such as the 
Venetian Canova, the Dane Thorwaldsen and many 
others. He added numerous manuscripts and printed 
volumes to the Vatican library, reopened the English, 
Scottish and German Colleges at Rome, and established 
new chairs in the Roman College. 

259. Leo XII (1823-1829).— One of the great 
events of his reign was the exposure and condemnation 
of Freemasonry, and of other important secret societies, 
which were rapidly developing during this period 
(1825). Leo XII labored above all to counteract the 

(191) 



192 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

irreligious tendencies of the age. He gave a great 
stimulus to education, and recalled the Jesuits to the 
colleges they had occupied in Rome before the sup- 
pression of the order. 

260. Pius VIII (1829-1830), who reigned less than 
two years, did much toward the abolition of slavery 
in Brazil. During his pontificate, the Catholics of 
Great Britain and Ireland, under the leadership of the 
inimitable Daniel O'Connell, obtained from Parliament 
a recognition of their civil and religious rights, and the 
repeal of those oppressive and persecuting laws under 
which they had suffered so long. The Catholic Church 
in England entered upon a new and brilliant epoch of 
its history. 

261. Gregory XVI (1830-1846) was a pontiff of 
distinguished energy and piety, who lived the life of 
a religious on the throne of St. Peter. He labored 
strenuously to uphold the rights of the Church against 
the Carbonari and other secret societies ; extended the 
missions of the Church by erecting forty new sees in 
various parts of the world ; founded public baths, 
hospitals and orphanages, and gave a great impulse 
to the arts and sciences. He founded the Etruscan and 
Egyptian museums at the Vatican, and the Christian 
museum at the Lateran. To his devotion, his munifi- . 
cence and his labors, Rome and the Universal Church 
are indebted for many benefits. 

262. Pius IX (1846-1878).— Whereas Gregory 
XVI, who will ever be named among the great popes 
of the Church, held the revolutionary elements of Italy 
in restraint by severity, his successor, Pius IX, sought 
to conciliate them by mildness. The latter was, how- 
ever, sadly disappointed in his expectations. 

263. Trials of the Papacy. — The Italian revolution- 
ists, with the notorious Mazzini at their head, were 
enraged because the pope would not take part in the 
war against Austria. De Rossi, the energetic minister 
of the Papal States, sought to restore order, but he 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 193 

fell by the dagger of an assassin, while the pope 
himself was obliged to flee for safety to Gaeta, in the 
Kingdom of Naples. Rome was declared a republic, 
but the Catholic powers intervened. The French army 
retook Rome from the grasp of the revolutionary 
Garibaldi, and, in 1850, Pius IX returned to his capital. 
The French remained in Rome, and the Austrian army 
held possession of the Legations, fourteen in number, 
into which the Papal States were divided outside of 
Rome and its domains. In 1859 the revolutionary party 
found an ally in the Piedmontist ruler, Victor 
Emmanuel. England, too, sided with the revolution- 
ists, and Napoleon III offered to lend a hand to drive 
the Austrians out of Italy, with the result that the 
pope lost one-third of his domains. At the outbreak 
of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, the French troops, 
who until then occupied the remaining States, were 
withdrawn, and Rome was at the mercy of the Italians. 
The parliament of Florence voted the annexation of 
the Papal States. Rome became the capital, and Victor 
Emmanuel the ruler of the United Kingdom of Italy. 
The king made the Quirinal his royal palace, and, in 
May, 1871, passed the Law of Guarantee. By this 
law the person of the pope was acknowledged to be 
sacred and inviolable, and he was granted the use of 
the Vatican and of the palace of the Lateran. More- 
over, a yearly pension of 3^4 million lire ($650,000) was 
granted him. To this day, however, the popes have 
declined this offer, lest at any time its acceptance might 
be interpreted by the Italian Government as conveying 
an indirect approval of the unjust robbery of the States 
of the Church, and, in consequence, the popes continue 
to be voluntary captives in the palace of the Vatican. 
In order to provide the necessary funds for the govern- 
ment of the Church, which the revenues of the Papal 
States had supplied until then, the offering of the 
faithful, called Peter's Pence, was instituted. 

264. Consolations. — The decline of the temporal 
power of the popes was marked by an increase of the 



194 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

spiritual ascendency of the sovereign pontiffs. The 
number of pilgrimages to Rome constantly increased, 
and the bishops in all parts of the world became more 
closely united with the head* of the Church. On 8 
December, 1854, Pius IX, in the presence of more than 
200 bishops, proclaimed the Immaculate Conception 
of the Blessed Virgin Mary a dogma of the Church. 
He also fostered the devotion to the Sacred Heart, and, 
in 1856, extended the celebration of the feast thereof 
to the whole world. At his instance, the Catholic 
world was consecrated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus on 
16 June, 1875. In 1869 the Twentieth Ecumenical 
Council was assembled at the Vatican, and in 1870 it 
defined the dogma of the "Infallibility of the Pope in 
all Matters of Faith and Morals". Pius IX lived to 
the age of eighty-six years, having occupied the chair 
of St. Peter for thirty-two years, the longest reign the 
Church has ever witnessed. His long pontificate gave 
him occasion to display universal activity in the affairs 
of the Church. In the midst of many and severe 
trials, he fought fearlessly against the false liberalism 
which threatened to destroy the very essence of faith 
and religion. As supreme teacher of all nations, he 
encouraged learning, science and art, and frequently 
opposed and condemned the scientific, political and 
social errors of the day. He erected 36 bishoprics in 
the United States, and at his own expense established 
at Rome the Latin American College (1853), and the 
College of the United State- of America (1859). 

265. Leo XIII ( 1878-1903 ) .—Like his predecessor, 
Leo XIII displayed an active energy which encom- 
passed the whole world. He repeatedly protested 
against the robbery of the States of the Church ; pro- 
tected the sanctity of marriage and of property, and 
reformed philosophical studies ; encouraged and recom- 
mended Catholic journalism, and the spread of Catholic 
literature ; promoted science and piety, and condemned 
anew the secret societies. In 1878 he wrote a learned 
encyclical on the equality of all men, in which he 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 195 

refuted the fundamental error of Socialism. In 1883 
he threw open the doors of the Vatican Archives, 
granting free access to its boundless treasures of 
authentic documents to all scholars of the world, 
regardless of nation or creed, saying: "The Church 
needs nothing but the truth." He exhorted all Chris- 
tian nations to the study of the Sacred Scriptures, and 
wrote numerous encyclicals to the bishops and arch- 
bishops of the various countries of the world. In the 
Encyclical "Rerum novarum" (1891), he set forth the 
Christian principles bearing on the relations between 
capital and labor, and gave a vigorous impulse to the 
social movement along Christian lines. Spain and 
Germany sought his arbitration to settle their differ- 
ences ; in fact, he was universally recognized as the 
supreme pontiff, the great father of the human family. 

The United States at all times attracted the atten- 
tion, and frequently called forth the admiration of 
Leo XIII. He raised to the cardinalate Archbishop 
Gibbons of Baltimore (1886), and in 1889 sent a papal 
delegate, Monsignor Satolli, to represent him on the 
occasion of the foundation of the Catholic University 
of America. In 1892 he founded the Apostolic Delega- 
tion at Washington. 

The Church made great progress under Leo XIII. 
Two hundred and forty-eight episcopal or archiepisco- 
pal sees were created, new religious congregations 
were founded, the Catholic missions were extended, and 
numerous colleges were established. 

266. Pius X (1903-1914).— Elected at the dawn of 
the twentieth century, Pius X was in truth the man 
chosen by Providence to be the savior of the Church 
in peril. By a masterly document, he practically 
stamped out the dangerous errors of Modernism, an 
accumulation of rationalistic tenets, the essential tend- 
ency of which was the corruption of Catholic dogma. 
These errors had found adherents chiefly among the 
younger clergy of Germany, France and Italy. 



196 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

Pius X directed his efforts principally to the pro- 
motion of piety among the faithful. On 20 December, 
1905, he issued the decree on "Frequent and Daily 
Communion", wherein he advised all to receive Holy 
Communion frequently, and, if possible, daily. This 
decree was soon followed by another "On the Age for 
First Communion" (1910), by which he desired to 
restore the discipline of the early Church, and to re-en- 
force the decrees of the Councils of Lateran and of 
Trent : "All the faithful of both sexes, upon reaching 
the age of reason, shall confess all their sins, at least 
once a year, to their priest ; and they shall receive Holy 
Communion with devotion, at least during the Easter 
time." 

In his first encyclical, Pius X made known that 
the motto of his pontificate would be : "To restore all 
things in Christ." Faithful to this principle, he began 
the work of restoration by publishing a Motu Proprio 
on sacred music in churches, and ordered the authentic 
Gregorian Chant to be used everywhere. He raised 
the standard of seminary studies in Italy, and estab- 
lished at Rome the Biblical Institute for the scientific 
and authoritative study of the Sacred Scriptures. He 
reconstructed the Breviary, and appointed a commis- 
sion of cardinals for codifying the laws of the Church. 
He reorganized the Roman Curia, and simplified 
ecclesiastical procedure in Rome and throughout the 
Catholic world. In fact, Pius X has effected reforms 
that have no parallel since the days of Sixtus V. He 
invigorated the Church from within, and strengthened 
her against all attacks from without. He repeatedly 
lauded the Church in the United States of America for 
the freedom it enjoys, and honored it beyond prece- 
dent by creating three of its prelates Princes of the 
Church. 

267. Benedict XV (1914- ) was elected to the 
Chair of Peter while Europe was engaged in a frightful 
war of nations. His saintly predecessor had died with 
a prayer for peace upon his lips, and Benedict opened 



HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 197 

his career with an earnest appeal to the warring nations 
to cease their angry struggle, for the sake of suffering 
humanity and for the love of God. However, the year 
1914 came to a close, and the word of the Holy Father 
was apparently unheeded. 

In his first encyclical, Benedict XV speaks with 
unstinted praise of the splendid fruits which the active 
zeal of his predecessor brought forth in the Church, 
and of the example of his holy life, which added such 
lustre to the Apostolic See. He then recommends that 
all Catholics should guard against dissensions, and that 
they should think and act unitedly. He again con- 
demns Modernism, and requests all to keep clear of 
the spirit of the Modernists, who "reject disdainfully 
whatever savors of antiquity, and eagerly search for 
novelties everywhere — in the manner of speaking of 
Divine things, in the celebration of Divine worship, in 
the Catholic institutions, and in the private exercise 
of piety". The Holy Father then concludes with an 
earnest prayer for peace, "in the interests of society, 
so that real progress may be made in every branch 
of culture ; and in the interests of the Church of Jesus 
Christ, in order that she may be able to bear help and 
salvation to men in every part of the world". 

Topical Outline 

258. Pius VII labored to re-establish the States 
of the Church. 

259. Leo XII exposed secret societies, and 
counteracted the irreligious tendencies of the time. 

260. Pius VIII saw a new era dawn upon the 
Church in England. 

261. Gregory XVI was noted for great piety and 
activity. 

262. The pontificate of Pius IX was the longest 
in the history of the papacy. 

263. The Papal States were absorbed in the United 
Kingdom of Italy. 



198 HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE PAPACY 

264. The severe trials of the pope were followed 
by consolations. 

265. Leo XIII was universally recognized as the 
great father of the human family. 

266. Pius X carried out his plan, to "restore all 
things in Christ". 

267. Benedict XV issued his first encyclical toward 
the close of the year 1914. 

See Notes: Motu Proprio, Curia, Canova, Thorwaldsen, 
encyclical, Napoleon III. 

REFERENCES FOR READING. 

Concordat: "Pius VII," by Mary Allies (B. B.). Ch. Ill, "The 
Concordat;" Ch. V, "Pius VII at the Tuilleries." 

Pius IX: "Life of Pius IX, by Rt. Rev. Mons. B. O'Reilly 
(P. J. K.). Ch. XXIX, "The Church Despoiled;" Ch. 
XXXIV, "The Invasion of Rome;" Ch. XXXIII, "The 
Vatican Council." 

"The Unbeliever," a Romance of Lourdes, by a Non- 
Catholic (B- B.). 

"Rome: Its Rulers and Its Institutions," by J. F. Maguire 
(P. J. K.). 

"The Purpose of the Papacy." by Rt. Rev. J. S. Vaughan 
(B. H.). Part I, Ch. VI, "The Pope's Infallible 
Authority." 

Lourdes: "Our Lady of Lourdes and Bernadette," by Rev. B. 
Vaughan, S. J. (B. B.). 
"Summer Talks About Lourdes," by Miss Caddell (B. B.). 

Temporal Power: "The Victories of Rome," by Kenelm 

Digby Best (B. B.). Ch. II, "Necessity of the Temporal 

Power." 
Modern Papacy: '"Lectures on the History of Religions" 

(B. H.). Vol. Ill, "The Modern Papacy, Pius IX, Leo 

XIII, and Pius X." 

"Recollections of Four Popes (Pius VII, Leo XII, Pius 

VIII, Gregory XVI), and of Rome in their Times," by 

Cardinal Wiseman (B. B.). 
Leo XIII: "Life and Acts of Pope Leo XIII" (B. B.). 
Pius X: "Life of His Holiness, Pope Pius X" (B. B.). 
Vatican Archives: "America," Volume III, No. 17, P. 433 

(A. P.). 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 

268. France.— In 1821 Napoleon died at St. Helena, 
after receiving the last rites of the religion he had so 
grievously persecuted. Louis XVIII restored the 
Papal States, and entered into negotiations with Pope 
Pius VII for the support and extension of religion in 
France. The number of bishoprics was increased ; 
many religious communities were founded ; missions 
were held, churches were repaired, and parishes recon- 
structed. The exiled priests had labored assiduously 
in their places of sojourn, and many souls were rescued 
from heresy and schism. Thus the revolutionary storm 
had scattered the good seed far and wide, to bring forth 
fruit in due season. On their return to France, the 
clergy set themselves earnestly to work to undo the 
evils of the preceding years. Foreign missions were 
also wonderfully extended. China had been laid waste 
by continued persecution, but more French mission- 
aries stepped forward to occupy the places of those 
who had fallen, and carried the tidings of salvation 
throughout that immense empire. Flowever, the 
restoration of the Faith in France was but temporary. 
During the reign of Charles X (1824-1830), the revolu- 
tionists deemed themselves strong enough for a 
decisive assault on the monarchy and on the Church. 
They demanded the expulsion of the Jesuits, and, for 
the sake of peace, the king consented to sacrifice them. 
In 1830, the lawful king was dethroned, and replaced 
by Louis Philippe, of the House of Orleans. His reign, 
which lasted until 1848, threatened to be more fatal 
to the Church and to society than the Revolution. 
Education was not only severed from religion, but it 
was henceforth to be conducted by those who were 
openly and avowedly infidels. The press poured forth 
its calumnies, history was distorted, and the chief end 
of man was made to consist in material prosperity 
alone. Louis Philippe reaped the natural fruit of this 

(199) 



200 THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 

dangerous policy, and was finally expelled from the 
throne. In 1850, during the second republic, Catholics 
obtained the liberty to open colleges for classical 
instruction, and new schools, conducted by priests and 
religious, sprang up on all sides. In 1880, the majority 
of the Parliament being of a hostile spirit, that is, 
being pledged to carry out the designs of the secret 
parliament of Masonry, the schools of the Jesuits were 
closed, and their establishments suppressed. The Law 
of 1903 deprived all religious of the right to teach. 
The aim of the Government was to banish religion 
from society. In 1905 a law was passed providing for 
the establishment of "associations of worship", which 
should administer the church funds, and own all the 
buildings of public worship. Pius X condemned the 
proposed "associations", and left the bishops to choose 
their own organization. In this connection it must be 
remembered that, ever since the Revolution, the anti- 
clerical measures passed in the French Parliament 
were decreed beforehand in the Masonic lodges. It is 
the plan of Masonry to destroy all social influence of 
the Church and of religion, and, as far as possible, to 
annihilate them both. Nevertheless, the Catholic 
Church is still flourishing in France, and these very 
persecutions have brought about a universal revival 
of Catholic activity. The French clergy are now 
laboring strenuously and successfully, hand in hand 
with the zealous laity, fur the re-establishment of 
Christian piety in France. 

269. Italy. — After the fall of the French Empire 
(1815), the Italian princes established friendly relations 
with the Holy See. The revolutionary agitations of 
1848 led to the flight of Pius IX to Gaeta, and to the 
establishment of the second "Roman Republic" ; but 
they were soon suppressed by the French under Gen- 
eral Oudinot. In 1870 Victor Emmanuel captured 
Rome, and completed the spoliation of the Papal States. 
Freemasonry, together with the Carbonari, under the 
leadership of Mazzini and Garibaldi, co-operated in 



THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 201 

this revolutionary movement. Yet today, the pope, 
deprived of all temporal power, and a prisoner in the 
Vatican, still guards the faith and morals of men, his 
only prestige being the Divine authority of which he 
has been made the depositary. 

The attitude of the Italian powers with regard to 
the Holy Father must not, however, be taken as an 
index of the religion of the people. More than 97 per 
cent of the population are Catholics, and most of them 
are devout and faithful in the practice of religion. Their 
great love for the Madonna is well known, and vouches 
for the earnestness of their faith. 

270. Spain. — The armies of Napoleon had pillaged 
churches and convents. Ferdinand VII, having been 
restored to the throne in 1814, was favorable to the 
Church. After his death, however, a violent reaction 
set in (1833). The property of the convents was 
confiscated, and the bishops and priests were sent 
into exile. The spirit of the revolution made itself 
master of the Peninsula, and, ever since, Spain has 
known no rest. Twice during the reign of Isabella 
II, and once shortly after her flight from Spain, there 
were wholesale seizures of church property and of the 
goods of religious orders, and the officials repeatedly 
imbrued their hands in the blood of unarmed and 
defenseless priests and nuns. In our own day (1912) 
the late President of the Council, Canalejas, and his 
band of political freebooters, have done all in their 
power to strip the Church of her property, and to 
deprive her of her clergy. 

271. Portugal. — At the beginning of the nineteenth 
century Portugal shared the fate of Spain. The royal 
family had fled to Brazil, and Dom Pedro, the eldest 
son, became king of that country in 1822. His brother, 
Dom Miguel, a devout Catholic, returned to Portugal 
•and was declared king in 1828. Five years later, Dom 
Pedro claimed the throne of Portugal for his daughter 
Mary, and with the aid of French and English troops, 
drove Dom Miguel from the country. The Liberals 



202 THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 

and Freemasons, who had lent their aid, made use of 
the opportunity to persecute the Church. The convents 
were closed, the property of the religious was con- 
fiscated, and only such priests and bishops as had 
permission from the Government could administer the 
sacraments. Not until 1881, during the pontificate of 
Leo XIII, did the relations between Rome and the 
Court of Lisbon assume a friendlier aspect. In October 
1910 Portugal was declared a republic. Former 
decrees, which required the suppression of all convents, 
monasteries and religious establishments of every kind, 
were renewed. The sacking of convents took place 
amid the usual scenes of profanation and even murder. 
Those who now (1915) rule Portugal delight in tramp- 
ling on the Cross, and killing or exiling men and 
women who are conspicuous for their steadfast main- 
tenance of Christian principles. 

272. The Netherlands. — At the Congress of 
Vienna (1815), Belgium and Holland were united into 
the Kingdom of the Netherlands under William I. The 
constitution was inimical to the Church, and bishops, 
who on that account could not take the required oath 
to uphold it, were treated as rebels. Protestant teach- 
ers were appointed for the intermediate and high 
schools, religious orders were forbidden to receive 
new candidates, priests were imprisoned or deprived 
of their parishes, and Catholic societies were 
suppressed. Convents and Catholic educational insti- 
tutions were closed, and their property was confiscated. 
This mode of persecution, as well as the difference in 
religion, character and manners of the two races, 
finally led to the revolution of 1830, which ended in the 
separation of Belgium from Holland. 

273. Belgium. — Leopold I, a Protestant prince of 
the House of Sachs-Coburg, became the ruler of the 
new Kingdom of Belgium. The constitution of 1831 
granted freedom of worship and of instruction. The 
bishops at once took advantage of these conditions, 
established schools and institutions of higher educa- 



THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 203 

tion, and restored the University of Louvain (1835). 
Religious congregations again took charge of the ele- 
mentary schools. In 1878, however, the liberal party, 
or free-thinkers, rose into power, and succeeded in 
abolishing the teaching of religion in the public schools. 
The Catholics, headed by their bishops, at once began 
to establish free primary schools, which were soon 
attended by more than half of all the pupils of the 
country. Since 1884 the Catholic party has held the 
ascendency in the Government, and has inaugurated a 
period of extraordinary progress and prosperity. The 
Catholic Press is a strong exponent of the religious 
spirit in Belgium, which has at least fourteen Catholic 
dailies. 

274. Holland.— The Catholics of Holland had 
practically to struggle fifty years for their religious 
liberty. In 1853 Pope Pius IX re-established the 
ecclesiastical hierarchy in Holland. Since 1884 the 
Church has enjoyed full liberty, and the number of 
Catholics is rapidly increasing. In 1906 the Catholic 
University of Utrecht was founded. In October 1912 
Mr. Van Nispen of Lavenaer was elected to the speak- 
ership of the Second Chamber of the National 
Legislature. This is the first time in the constitutional 
history of Holland that a Catholic was elected to this 
important position. 

275. Germany. — After the secularization of Church 
property, sanctioned by the Congress of Vienna, a 
number of princes attempted to dominate the Church. 
The king of Prussia, Frederick William III, endeavored 
to force the clergy to bless the marriage of Catholics 
and Protestants without making any condition as to 
the education of the children. Those bishops who 
resisted were thrown into prison. However, they 
eventually gained their cause. After the formation 
of the German Empire (1871), Prussia began a terrible 
war against the clergy. It was called Kulturkampf, 
i. e., the struggle for culture. The originators, Bis- 
marck and his adherents, named it thus to intimate that 



204 THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 

belief in Catholic dogmas was subversive of true 
culture. The Jesuits and other religious orders were 
dispersed. The famous "May Laws" of 1873 purported 
to submit ecclesiastical affairs to the control of the 
State. Seminarists were subjected to military service, 
and were obliged to spend several years in State uni- 
versities. Furthermore, the bishops and clergy were 
deprived of State support, and were fined and exiled. 
But the Catholics found a champion in the celebrated 
Windthorst, who obliged the Government to retrace 
its steps. He was the leader of the great Center or 
Catholic party, through the influence of which religious 
peace was gradually restored. 

276. Austria. — During the first half of the century, 
Austria remained a prey to the false tenets of Joseph 
II. It was only in 1855 that a concordat was arranged 
between the Holy See and the Emperor Francis Joseph 
I, by which the liberty of the Church was officially 
recognized. The opposition, composed of Josephites, 
Jews, Protestants and Freemasons, prevented the 
application of the concordat, and eventually effected its 
abrogation in 1874. Then Catholics began to organize, 
in order to recover the liberty of the Church. At pres- 
ent, there is a Catholic majority in the municipality of 
Vienna and in the Reichsrath. Hungary, on the other 
hand, has enjoyed comparative freedom in its ecclesi- 
astical affairs, owing to the official capacity of its 
cardinal-primate, who is, at the same time, a legate of 
the Holy See, and chancellor of the king. In Austria- 
Hungary about ninety-five per cent of the population 
belong to the Catholic Church. 

277. Switzerland. — At the close of the eighteenth 
century, no Catholic could possess property in the 
territory of Geneva, and the penalty of death was 
imposed upon the priest who was found to say Mass. 
After the Congress of Vienna, Catholics enjoyed a 
relative freedom of worship. In 1845 seven Catholic 
cantons formed a league called the "Sonderbund" 
(separate league) for their mutual protection. At the 



THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 205 

Diet of 1847, they demanded recognition. The motion 
was rejected, and war ensued. The Catholic cantons 
were defeated, the Jesuits were driven out of the 
country, and most of the monasteries in the Catholic 
cantons were suppressed by the violent radical Gov- 
ernment that had come into power. At a later date, Old 
Catholicism appeared, and brought on a persecution 
against Catholic priests and people in some cantons, 
especially in Berne and Geneva. Notwithstanding all 
this, Catholic life has greatly developed in Switzerland, 
notably in later years. Thus, the "Catholic People's 
Union" extends over the whole of Switzerland. This 
society unites the individual organizations into one 
large association, and labors with much success in the 
fields of religion, charity, social work and education. 
The cantonal University of Fribourg is also of great 
importance to Catholic life in Switzerland. 

278. Great Britain. — Under the leadership of 
Daniel O'Connell, through whose superior statesman- 
ship the Emancipation Bill was passed in 1829, the 
Catholics of Great Britain finally obtained admittance 
to public offices and to membership in Parliament. In 
1850 Pope Pius IX restored the Catholic hierarchy in 
England, re-establishing twelve bishoprics, and 
appointed the learned Cardinal Wiseman to the archi- 
episcopal see of Westminster. The latter was 
succeeded in turn by Cardinal Manning, Cardinal 
Vaughan, and Cardinal Bourne. Five and one-half 
million Catholics now enjoy complete freedom of 
worship in Great Britain, Ireland alone numbering 
over three and one-half million. The nineteenth 
Eucharistic Congress was held at London (Sept. 1908), 
under the presidency of the cardinal-legate Vanutelli. 
The active and enthusiastic participation of the faith- 
ful from all parts of the kingdom gave evidence of the 
great vitality of Catholicity in England. 

279. Russia and Poland. — Queen Catherine II, 
through her despotic rule, caused eight million Cath- 
olics to join the schismatic Russian Church. The same 



206 THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 

policy, continued by Nicholas I (1825-1855) and Alex- 
ander II (1855-1881), tended to absorb Catholic Poland. 
The severest persecution followed the Polish uprising 
of 1863, and many priests and religious were banished 
to Siberia. Among 130 millions of inhabitants there 
are twelve million Catholics, mostly natives of Poland. 

280. Enemies of Christianity. — The most notori- 
ous personal enemy of Christianity at the present day 
is Freemasonry. Its creed is solely natural ; it knoAvs 
nothing but self, and that which pertains to self-inter- 
est. Most of the nations of Europe are honeycombed 
with Freemasonry, which has been at work through 
the century to gain admittance to the council-chambers 
of the nations, whence it exerts its dechristianizing 
influence upon the masses by propagating its natural- 
istic views and motives. Thus it is, that from out of 
their ranks we hear the cry: "There is no God!" and 
"Death is an eternal sleep!" 

Another absolute enemy of Christianity is godless 
education. It pursues a most destructive course by 
taking Christ from the child, and by teaching liberty 
without restraint. Such a system of education must 
inevitably lead the nations back to Paganism. "We 
have driven Christ from the schools," is the vain boast 
of these naturalistic leaders. What is the result? 
Taking God and religion from the hearts of children, 
they are building up nations with no higher law, no 
love of God, or generous love of neighbor, in a word, 
nations without Christianity. 

Topical Outline 

268. The "aim of the French Government was to 
banish religion from society. 

269. Freemasonry co-operated with the revolu- 
tionary movement in Italy (1870). 

270. The spirit of revolution has repeatedly 
troubled the Church in Spain. 

271. The Liberals and Freemasons persecuted the 
Church in Portugal. 



THE CHURCH IN EUROPE 207 

272. Religious oppression led to the separation of 
Belgium and Holland (1830). 

273. The constitution of Belgium granted freedom 
of worship and of instruction (1831). 

274. Since 1884 the Church has enjoyed full 
liberty in Holland. 

275. The Church passed through severe trials in 
Germany, but religious peace was gradually restored. 

276. The concordat secured the liberty of the 
Church in Austria (1855). 

277. After much opposition, peace was granted to 
the Church in Switzerland (1885). 

278. Freedom of worship prevails in Great Britain. 

279. The Church was constantly oppressed in Rus- 
sia and Poland. 

280. Two notorious enemies of Christianity in 
Europe are Freemasonry and godless education. 

See Notes: Josephite, Reichsrath, Old Catholicism. 



REFERENCES FOR READING. 

Napoleon: "In the Turkish Camp and Other Stories" (B. H.). 
"The Star of Fortune, Napoleon." 

Freemasons: "A Study of American Freemasonry," by 
Arthur Preuss (B. H.). 

The Sects: "The Purpose of the Papacy," by Rt. Rev. John S. 
Vaughan (B. H.). Part I, Ch. IV, "The Church and 
the Sects." 

Kulturkampf: "History of the Catholic Church in the Nine- 
teenth Century," by Rev. James MacCaffrey (B. H.). 
Vol. I, Ch. X, "The Kulturkampf in the German Empire;" 
Vol. II, Ch. XI, "Socialism." 

Hungary: "Queen Saint of Hungary" (H. L. K.). 

Ireland: "A History of Our Own Times," by Justin Mc- 
Carthy. Vol. II, Ch. LVII, "The Irish Church." 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 

281. United States of America. — The nineteenth 
century witnessed a greater extension of Catholicity 
in the United States than in any other country. At 
the time of the Declaration of Independence there 
were nearly 40,000 Catholics ; today they number more 
than sixteen million. In 1 789, the first bishop, John 
Carroll, was appointed to the see of Baltimore ; today 
(1915) the United States has 3 cardinals, 14 archbish- 
ops, and 102 bishops. This remarkable increase is due, 
in great part, to the constant influx of Catholic immi- 
grants, and to the ever-increasing number of converts 
from Protestantism. In its relations with the State, 
the Church has enjoyed full liberty according to the 
Constitution, which insures to every citizen freedom of 
wi irship. The bishops have repeatedly met in council 
at Baltimore, strengthening the organization of the 
Church, and protecting its doctrine from baneful influ- 
ences. Religious houses have constantly increased in 
number, and schools, seminaries and other educational 
establishments have been founded. Church and State 
are completely separated, though working with united 
efforts for the welfare of the great republic. In 1908 
the President of the United States wrote to Arch- 
bishop Ireland of St. Paul : "In our happy country, 
liberty and religion are allied by nature, and move 
along hand in hand". Yet, from time to time, outbursts 
of hateful bigotry against the Catholic religion have 
been witnessed even in this land of liberty, warning 
us to be ever vigilant, united and active, if we would 
preserve the liberty which we now enjoy. 

282. Canada. — When Canada passed into the pos- 
session of the English in 1763, it numbered about 
63,000 Catholics. The country had previously been 
evangelized by the Jesuit and Sulpician missionaries. 
At present, Canada has about two and a half million 

(208) 



THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 209 

Catholics, with 8 archbishops and 23 bishops. Laval 
University at Quebec is a flourishing institution. The 
Oblates of Mary Immaculate have been actively 
engaged, since 1841, in converting the Indians of the 
West and Northwest. To the present day, the French 
Canadians have ever been faithful to the religious 
heritage bequeathed to them by their Catholic fore- 
fathers. 

283. Mexico. — Shortly after the conquest of Mex- 
ico by Cortes, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
Spanish Franciscan missionaries established schools 
and colleges there. Towards the end of the century, the 
Jesuits founded colleges in the principal cities, so that 
Christian civilization and education flourished together 
through all the years of Mexico's history, until the 
establishment of the republic in 1824. The so-called 
reform laws which followed brought about the aboli- 
tion of the religious orders, with the confiscation of 
their property and of their educational institutions. 
The revolutionary party was strongly opposed to the 
Catholic Church. As in other countries, war was 
declared against the altar as well as against the throne. 
This anti-religious feeling emanated from the 
overwhelming number of Masonic lodges, the repre- 
sentatives of which practically controlled the entire 
country. From 1824 to 1876 the history of Mexico 
is one long record of rebellion and civil war. Out 
of a population of nearly fifteen million, about five or 
six per cent only are non-Catholics. Withal, Mexico 
is not progressive. "The lack of progress is due to 
the fact that in Mexico we have the sad spectacle of 
a profoundly Catholic population made the slaves of 
tyrannical laws dictated by an audacious horde of 
free-thinkers" (America, Vol. VIII, No. 22). At the 
close of the year 1914, Freemasonry proclaimed its 
triumph in Mexico, and its avowed purpose to extirpate 
the Catholic Church in that ill-fated country has thus 
far been successful. Religion and morality have been 
publicly and shamelessly outraged. Whole regions 
have been cleared of bishops, priests and religious. 



210 THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 

Catholic schools and colleges have been closed, and 
Catholic teaching and preaching entirely suppressed. 
Thousands of religious men and women have been 
robbed, tortured, exiled, and, in many instances, 
brutally murdered. Anarchy reigns supreme, and 
crime and blasphemy mark the triumph of a policy 
conceived in iniquity and executed in blood. 

284. Central America.— In 1824, the States of 
Central America, which until then had been under 
the domination of Spain and Portugal, formed an 
independent confederation. After some years they 
separated, each establishing its own government, and 
adopting a republican constitution. The changes were, 
as usual, accompanied by violent revolutions. These 
were headed by men hostile to the Catholic Church, 
and, as a result, the clergy and the religious orders 
were persecuted, and the property belonging to the 
Church was confiscated. In most cases, however, 
owing to the fact that the greater number of the 
inhabitants are Catholics, the Catholic religion has 
been officially recognized as the State religion. Each 
State has a bishop and a considerable number of 
priests. In 1908 Pius X sent an Apostolic delegate 
to reside at Costa Rica, and to act as extraordinary 
envoy to the Government of that republic. 

285. South America. — Colombia rebelled against 
Spain in 1810. Its history during the last century 
was marked by frequent revolutions and civil wars, 
and the Church suffered severely from the different 
factions. By the constitution of 1886, the Catholic 
religion was recognized as the religion of the State, 
and the public authorities consecrated the republic to 
the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Colombia has four arch- 
bishops and ten bishops. The clergy are paid by the 
State. The schools are thoroughly religious in char- 
acter, and most of them are in charge of religious 
congregations. 

The history of the other countries of South America 
in the nineteenth century is similar to that of Colombia. 



THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 211 

They all had their revolutions and civil wars, and all 
adopted a republican form of government. The Church 
was persecuted and oppressed, though in the end the 
Catholic religion was recognized by each as the religion 
of the State. The State provides for the expenses of 
public worship, pays the salaries of the clergy, and, 
in several cases, grants appropriations for the missions 
among the Indians. The schools and colleges are 
mostly in charge of religious congregations. 

Brazil may be mentioned as an exception. From 
1822 to 1889 it was an empire. Nowhere in the world 
were Masonic lodges more powerful than among the 
ruling classes in Brazil, and they used their influence 
to oppress the Catholic Church by every means in 
their power. However, when Brazil became a republic 
in 1889, the separation of Church and State was 
decreed, and freedom of religion and worship was 
guaranteed. Religion and education are now in a 
flourishing condition. Most of the governments of 
South America have introduced civil marriage ; still, 
divorce is considered illegal. 

286. Australia. — At the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, England established a penal settlement in 
Australia. A certain number of the convicts were 
Catholics, who had been transported principally from 
Ireland. These, however, had no priests to minister 
to their spiritual needs. In 1821, the foundation for 
the first church was laid at St. Mary's, Sydney, and 
today Australia and New Zealand count over a million 
Catholics. Australia has an excellent system of Cath- 
olic schools and colleges, and several well-equipped 
universities. The hierarchy consists of 6 archbishops 
and 22 bishops, besides 7 vicars-apostolic, and a large 
number of priests. 

287. Africa. — Up to the fifteenth century, the 
western part of Africa was evangelized by Dominicans 
from Portugal. Owing to political reverses, these 
missions had to be abandoned. In 1842 the Fathers 
of the African Missions took up the work anew, and, 



212 THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 

at the present time, flourishing Catholic missions exist 
along the entire western coast. Along the eastern 
coast, including Madagascar, the Catholic missions 
have attained a great extension. In 1830, Algiers 
was made an episcopal see, and, in 1867, it gave title 
to an archbishop with two suffragan sees. In 1881, 
the See of Carthage was re-established, with Cardinal 
Lavigerie as its titular bishop. There are now about 
three million Catholics in Africa. 

288. Asia.— Asia Minor numbers over 700,000 
Catholics, 250,000 of whom inhabit the Holy Land. 
Besides the Catholics of the Latin Rite, we find others 
having the Oriental Rites, though subject to the Pope 
of Rome. These are known as Maronites, Chaldeans, 
Syrians and Armenians. They are governed by patri- 
archs, and, in their language, liturgy and customs, 
differ considerably from the Latin Church. 

Persia is being rapidly evangelized since 1875, 
principally through the missionary labors of the Laz- 
arist or Vincentian Fathers. 

India, which has been the field of missionary labors 
since the thirteenth century, numbers over two million 
Catholics. More than 100,000 children are being 
instructed in Catholic schools, and numerous institu- 
tions of charity are in a flourishing condition. 

In Indo-China, bloody persecutions opened heaven 
to thousands of Catholics. Religious peace was finally 
established in 1885. In 1900 the number of Catholics 
exceeded 700,000. 

China cruelly opposed the teaching of the Gospel 
until the treaty of Tien-Tsin in 1860. The chief cause 
of this opposition was the fanatical ancestor worship, 
which had prevailed in China for ages. However, 
in 1889, an imperial decree legalized the Catholic 
religion, and since that time the Church has made 
considerable progress. In 1912 China changed its 
ancient form of government, and became a republic. 



THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 213 

Since then the Church has had opportunities which it 
never had before, and the bishops are now urgently 
asking for priests to labor at the conversion of the 
people. Although there are at present 5,000 Protestant 
missionaries in China, the Catholic Church has within 
its fold two-thirds of all the professed followers of 
Christianity. There are more than a million and a 
half Catholics, with 2,010 European and 631 Chinese 
priests. There is a great demand for English speaking 
missionaries, and the new seminary for foreign mis- 
sions, recently founded at Maryknoll, Ossining, N. Y., 
will be, like that of Techny, 111., a nursery of American 
Catholic apostles, who will soon join their missionary 
brethren in China. 

The Church in Korea has been in turn flourishing 
and persecuted. In the first half of the century there 
were more than 300 martyrs, whose blood was the seed 
that brought forth over 68,000 Catholics. Korea has 
but 56 priests. 

Japan was closed against all missionaries during the 
first half of the nineteenth century. In 1859, Christian 
missionaries were allowed to settle in a few of the 
seaport towns. In the persecution that lasted from 
1867 to 1873, thousands were exiled for the Faith. The 
representatives of European powers at the court of 
the Mikado protested, and liberty of worship was 
conceded. In 1891 Pope Leo XIII established the 
archdiocese of Tokio and three suffragan sees. The 
Catholic population is, at present (1915), about 65,000. 

The numberless groups of islands comprised in 
what is called Oceania have been evangelized during 
the last fifty years, and in many of them we may today 
find Catholic life flourishing as in the primitive times 
of the Church. 

289. Remarks. — Such is the prodigious task which 
the Church has accomplished since the beginning of 
the nineteenth century : The Catholic hierarchy estab- 



214 THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 

lished or restored in England, Scotland, Holland, in 
the Balkans, in India, Japan, Canada, the United States 
and Australia; the ancient Oriental Churches re-organ- 
ized, and united, at least in part, with Rome, the center 
of unity; and the patriarchates of Jerusalem, of Anti- 
och, and of Alexandria, re-established. More than 200 
episcopal sees, and nearly 200 vicariates or prefectures- 
apostolic were founded. Africa, Central i\sia, and the 
lost islands of Oceania were opened to the missionaries 
of the Gospel ; in a word, more than 25 millions of 
Christians were added to the great body of the faithful 
servants of God. Thus we see the apostolate, which 
was begun on Calvary, spreading into every country 
and region, preaching the same Divine law, the word 
of truth, to men of good will. 

Topical Outline 

281. Catholicity is making rapid progress in the 
United States. 

282. The French Canadians are staunch Catholics 
to this day. 

283. Freemasonry endeavors to crush the Church 
in Mexico. 

284. Catholicity prevails in Central America. 

285. Catholicity is the recognized religion of State 
in the South American republics. 

286. The Church in Australia is rapidly devel- 
oping. 

287. The Fathers of the African Missions are 
laboring successfully among the natives. 

288. The Church has made considerable progress 
in Asia. 

289. Summary of the work of the Church in the 
nineteenth century. 

See Notes: Rite, ancestor worship, vicariate, prefecture- 
apostolic, civil marriage. 



THE CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS 215 



REFERENCES FOR READING. 

In Other Lands: "The New Glories of the Catholic Church," 
by the Fathers of the London Oratory (J. M.)- Ch. I, 
"Korea;" Ch. II, "China;" Ch. V, "Oceania." 

United States: "History of the Catholic Church in the United 
States," by John G. Shea (P. J. K.). 

America: "History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth 
Century," by Rev. James MacCaffrey (B. H.). Vol. II, 
Ch. IV, "The Church in America;" Vol. II, Ch. VI, "The 
Catholic Missions." 

Central America: "The Trip to Nicaragua." A Tale of the 
Missions, by Rev. J. S. Spillmann, S. J. (B. H.). 

Japan: "Lectures on the Histories of Religions" (B. H.). 
Vol. V, "The Religions of Japan." 

Catholic Schools: "The Catholic School System in the United 
States," by Rev. J. A. Burns (B. B.). Ch. I, "Early 
Mission Schools of the Franciscans;" Ch. Ill, "Early 
Jesuit Schools in Maryland." 

Converts: "Converts to Rome in America," by D. J. Seanell- 
O'Neill (B. H.). 

"Some Roads to Rome in America." Personal Records of 
Conversions to the Catholic Church, Georgiana P. Curtis 
(B. H.)- 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 

290. Education of the Clergy. — In most countries 
the bishops have established theological and prepara- 
tory seminaries, where aspirants are prepared for work 
in the Church. The United States has many of these. 
Besides, a college for American ecclesiastical students 
has been opened at Rome, and another at Louvain. 
Since the establishment of the Catholic University at 
Washington, the younger clergy of this country are 
afforded an opportunity of pursuing higher studies 
without going abroad, in order to prepare them for 
positions as teachers in seminaries. 

291. Worship and Discipline. — Though the num- 
ber of holvdays of obligation was diminished, many 
feasts and practices of devotion were introduced during 
the nineteenth century. The devotion to the Blessed 
Eucharist manifested itself lay the perpetual adoration, 
by the spread of the Forty Hours' devotion, by Eucha- 
ristic Congresses, and especially in late years by the 
practice of frequent and daily Holy Communion, so 
earnestly recommended by our late Holy Father, Pope 
Pius X. Pius IX extended to the whole world the 
feast of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and Leo XIII 
consecrated the entire world to this Divine Heart. 
St. Joseph was solemnly proclaimed the "patron of the 
Universal Church" by Pius IX; and the months of 
May and October were especially consecrated to the 
devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary. 

Owing to the social requirements of the times, 
the prescriptions regarding fasting and abstinence were 
considerably modified. 

Pius X ordered that all profane music be eliminated 
from religious ceremonies, and prescribed the study 
and use of the original Gregorian Chant, so rich in 
pious melodies. 
(216) 



INTERNAL LIFE OF THE CHURCH 217 

292. Religious Orders. — During the wars of the 
French Revolution, the religious orders in Europe were 
almost annihilated. Still, in spite of oppression, con- 
fiscation of property and dispersion of their members 
into all parts of the world, the nineteenth century 
witnessed a great revival of religious orders and con- 
gregations. The ancient orders were re-established in 
Europe, and their monasteries arose in various parts of 
America. Many new orders and congregations were 
founded during the nineteenth century. Their mem- 
bers are devoted mainly to missionary labors and to 
the work of education. A complete list may be found 
in the Official Catholic Directory. 

Topical Outline 

290. Preparatory seminaries were established in 
many countries. 

291. Feasts and practices of devotion were intro- 
duced. 

292. Religious orders were revived, and new con- 
gregations were founded. 

REFERENCES FOR READING. 

Feasts of the Blessed Virgin: "The Queen's Festivals," An 
Explanation of the Feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary, by 
a Religious of the Society of the Holy Child (B. B.). 
"Stories on the Rosary," by L. E. Dobree (L. G.). 

Feasts: "Catholic Life; or Feasts, Fasts, and Devotions of 
the Ecclesiastical Year" (B. B.). 

Saints: "Little Lives of Great Saints," by John O'Kane 
Murray (P. J. K.). 
"The Roman Martyrology" (J. M.). 

Frequent Communion: "Eucharistic Lilies," by Helen Maery 
(B. B.). Stories of saintly children whose love of Jesus 
in the Blessed Sacrament has embalmed their memory 
in religious annals. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

NOTED CATHOLIC LAYMEN 

293. Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847), the Liberator 
of Ireland, the champion of Catholic Emancipation and 
of the political rights of his countrymen, was educated 
in France, and admitted to the Irish Bar, where he 
distinguished himself by his fluent oratory. In 1809 
O'Connell became the acknowledged leader of Catholic 
Ireland. In 1828 he was elected to Parliament, and 
succeeded in opening the legislature of the nation to 
Irish Catholics, after they had been excluded therefrom 
for nearly two centuries. 

O'Connell was a fervent Catholic, and fulfilled his 
religious duties with the utmost care and fidelity. In 
his old age he resolved to make a pilgrimage to Rome 
to receive the blessing of the Holy Father ; but he 
died at Genoa in 1847, before his pious wish could be 
fulfilled. 

294. Ludwig Windthorst (1812-1891), the cham- 
pion of Catholic progress in Germany, was the great 
leader of the German Catholic "Center Party", and the 
distinguished founder of the "People's Union for Cath- 
olic Germany" (1890). He was born in Prussia, and 
after receiving a classical education, he studied law, 
and was admitted to the Bar at Berlin. He became a 
member of the Reichstag and of the Prussian Landtag, 
and at once allied himself to the Center Party, the 
chief bulwark for the defense of religious interests in 
the Legislature. 

After the war of 1870-71, Prince Bismarck resolved 
on a political war against the Church in Germany. In 
this struggle for the rights and self-government of the 
Catholic Church, the Jesuits were expelled, religious 
instruction was forbidden in the schools, and the 
authority of the bishops was unjustly restricted. Then 
followed the drastic "May Laws" of 1873. Ecclesias- 
tical questions were settled before a civil tribunal. All 
(218) 



NOTED CATHOLIC LAYMEN 219 

members of religious orders were expelled, civil 
marriage was enforced by law, and government admin- 
istrators were appointed to manage parochial affairs. 
In consequence of this so-called "Kulturkampf", bish- 
ops and priests were thrown into prison, and many 
parishes were without pastors. During all this time 
Windthorst was the most active leader of the opposi- 
tion. He organized meetings and delivered stirring 
speeches in all parts of the empire. The Catholics 
were thus held together, and presented a united front 
to the foe. Pope Leo XIII, by his diplomacy and 
superior statesmanship, put an end to the Kultur,kampf, 
though it was the policy of Windthorst and his party 
that made the victory possible. 

The private life of Windthorst was marked by great 
simplicity and earnest piety. His beautiful memorial 
is the Church of the Blessed Virgin at Hanover, for 
the construction of which he generously gave the 
money presented to him by the Catholics of Germany. 
His death, in 1891, called forth demonstrations of 
sorrow and regret from the whole Catholic world. 

295. Frederick Ozanam (1813-1853), one of the 
most distinguished Catholic layman of France, was 
born at Milan in 1813. Early in life he promised God 
to devote his energies to the service of truth, and rarely 
was a promise more faithfully kept. He practiced law 
for two years, then went to Paris, where he obtained 
the doctorate in letters. He soon distinguished himself 
as an able writer, and as a brilliant apologist. His 
numerous and valuable literary works, his lectures, 
labors and organized activities all tended to re-awaken 
the Faith, and to instill enthusiasm for Christian truth. 

When but twenty years of age, Ozanam, with seven 
generous and devoted companions, founded the Society 
of St. Vincent de Paul (1833), an association of Catholic 
laymen organized for the purpose of rendering personal 
service to the poor. Himself a layman, he led a life of 
Christian holiness in the married state, and impressed 



220 NOTED CATHOLIC LAYMEN 

on the laity of the world, and especially on Christian 
youth, the fact that they also had their apostolate as 
well as the clergy and the religious, and by word and 
example he led the way to "personal sanctification by 
the contemplation of Jesus Christ suffering in the 
person of the poor". The winning of souls was his 
end ; but his immediate object was the relief of physical 
needs, by personally rendering every mode of temporal 
assistance. He made his fellow-students, and later his 
pupils, his most efficient workers in the cause of char- 
ity, thus originating the College and University 
Conferences of St. Vincent de Paul that now circle the 
world. His appeals found a mighty response among 
the educated classes. Before 1848, five hundred 
Conferences, or local organizations, were working in 
France, whilst the Society was firmly established in 
England, Belgium, Spain, North America, and other 
countries. Ozanam prematurely succumbed to his 
numerous works, and died most edifyingly at Mar- 
seilles, in 1853. 

296. Garcia Moreno (1821-1875) was born at 
Guayaquil, Ecuador, and was educated at the Univer- 
sity of Quito. He soon took an active part in the 
politics of his country. As a senator, he labored 
strenuously to oppose the Masonic party that had 
gained control of the government. Elected President 
in 1861, he immediately began a series of reforms, fore- 
most among which was the restitution of the rights 
of the Church. The anti-Catholics, who preferred to 
call themselves Liberals, repeatedly plotted against his 
life ; but Moreno continued his work for the enlighten- 
ment and the religious well-being of his people. He 
did much for the teaching of the physical sciences in 
the University, and the medical schools and hospitals 
of the capital were greatly benefited by his intelligent 
and zealous efforts. 

When, in 1870, the troops of Victor Emmanuel 
occupied Rome, Moreno alone, of all the rulers of the 
world, sent a protest to the King of Italy against the 



NOTED CATHOLIC LAYMEN 221 

spoliation of the Holy See. The Pope sent his bless- 
ing, and conferred upon the President of Ecuador the 
decoration of the First Class of the Order of Pius IX. 
At this time it was notorious that certain lodges had 
formally decreed the death of Moreno, who, in his 
letter to the Pope, used these almost prophetic words : 
"What riches for me, Most Holy Father, to be hated 
and calumniated for my dove for our Divine Redeemer! 
What happiness if your blessing should obtain for 
me from Heaven the grace of shedding my blood for 
Him, who, being God, was willing to shed His Blood 
for us upon the cross !" 

In 1875, he was basely murdered by a group of hired 
assassins. 

Topical Outline 

293. Daniel O'Connell was the great Catholic 
leader of Ireland. 

294. Ludwig Windthorst was the champion of 
Catholic progress in Germany. 

295. Frederick Ozanam founded the Society of St. 
Vincent de Paul for laymen. 

296. Garcia Moreno labored for the Catholic cause 
in Ecuador. 

REFERENCES FOR READING. 

Eminent Catholics: "Some Great Catholics of Church and 
State," by Bernard W. Kelly (B. B.). P. 10, "King John 
Sobieski." 

"The American Catholic Who's Who," by Georgiana P. 
Curtis (B. B.). 

Social Problems: "The Church and Social Problems," by 
Rev. Jos. Husslein, S. J. (A. P.). 

"Socialism," Ten Essays by Foremost Catholic Writers 
(A. P.). 

Present Day Catholicity: "Rambles in Catholic Lands," by 
Rev. M. Barret, O- S. B. (B. B.). 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER F 

THE CHURCH AND SCIENCE 

297. Men of Science. — In the realm of science, the 
Catholic Church has a long array of great and notable 
men, who were distinguished for piety, and for their 
thoroughly Catholic life. They furnish a standing 
proof against the oft repeated accusation that the 
Church is hostile to scientific progress. The popes 
were liberal patrons of science, as well as of art and 
of education in general. The Papal Medical Schools, 
such as those of Bologna and Rome, were, for several 
centuries, the greatest institutions of their kind in 
Europe. Many scientists of the Middle Ages were 
members of the clergy ; and some of them, like Albertus 
Magnus, have been formally raisedto the altars of the 
Catholic Church. 

Nearly every branch of modern science owes its 
origin to Catholic scientists. Thus the great founder 
of modern astronomy, Nicholas Copernicus, was a 
Catholic priest, who divided his day equally among the 
duties of the sacred ministry, a gratuitous medical aid 
to the poor, and his favorite study, astronomy. Basil 
Valentine, a Benedictine monk, is universally recog- 
nized as the founder of modern chemistry. Bishop 
Stensen of Denmark, generally known as Steno, was 
the most famous anatomist of his day, and is univer- 
sally recognized as the "father of geology". Guy de 
Chauliac, the "father of modern surgery", was a 
staunch Catholic, and a typical university man of the 
beginning of the fourteenth century. 

The science of geography originated almost entirely 
in Catholic discovery and adventure. The missionaries 
went to all parts of the inhabited world, and brought 
back accurate descriptions which were gathered and 
reduced to a system. Marco Polo, probably the 
greatest traveler of any age, was a dutiful son of the 
Catholic Church. Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da 
(222) 



THE CHURCH AND SCIENCE 223 

Gama, Vespucci, Balboa, Pizarro, Cortes, De Soto, 
Marquette and Joliet, are a few of the many Catholic 
names connected with the discoveries and explorations 
that added so much to the science of geography. 

Among the distinguished Catholic scientists of more 
recent date, we may note, among others, Alessandro 
Volta, whose voltaic battery (1800) marks an epoch 
in physical theory, and in the application of science 
to the welfare of mankind. Three practical units have 
been named after Catholic electrical pioneers; the volt, 
the unit of electrical pressure, in honor of Volta; the 
coulomb, the unit of electrical quantity, in honor of 
Charles de Coulomb ; and the ampere, the unit of 
current, in honor of Andrew Ampere. From Galvani, 
famous for his experiments concerning "the electrical 
forces in muscular movements", we have the term 
galvanism, applied to the manifestations of current 
electricity. Louis Pasteur, the founder of physio- 
chemistry, and the father of bacteriology, made the 
most important medical discoveries of the nineteenth 
century. Angelo Secchi, the distinguished Jesuit 
astronomer, meteorologist and physicist, acquired a 
world-wide fame by his remarkable discoveries and 
scientific works. 

Thus we find that in every age the Church not only 
encouraged scientific study and progress, but that she 
is likewise prominently represented among the most 
distinguished scientists of the world. 

REFERENCES FOR READING 

Science: "Catholic Science and Catholic Scientists," by Dr 
Zahm (H. L. K). 

"What Catholics Have Done for Science," by Rev. M. S. 
Brenhan (B. B.). 

"Catholic Churchmen in Science," by Dr. James J. Walsh 
(D. P.). Vol. I, Ch. II, "Copernicus and His Times;" 
Vol. II, Ch. II, "Albertus Magnus;" Ch. IV, "Guy de 
Chauliac." 

"The Popes and Science," by Dr. Tames J. Walsh 
(F. U. P.). 



, 



EPILOGUE 



To you that have read and studied this summary 
of the history of our Holy Mother, the Catholic Church, 
I would say : Behold the Church which Christ has 
established, the one, holy, catholic and apostolic 
Church ! In every phase of her glorious history you 
may see Christ Himself, living, acting and suffering, 
and giving evidence of her Divine origin and super- 
natural life. Yes, the Church is holy, and we look up 
to her with reverence ; she suffers, and we love her 
for it ; but she has conquered the world, and brought 
the nations to the feet of the Savior, and we are proud 
to be numbered among her children. 

In the course of ages the Church has indeed been 
opposed, attacked and persecuted ; but she has cour- 
ageously met all opposition, and triumphed over all her 
enemies. She has seen empires rise and fall, nations 
come and go, institutions flourish and decay : she alone 
has stood aloft, unchanged in her Faith, unswerving 
in her loyalty to Jesus Christ, her Divine Founder, and 
ever faithful to her sublime mission — the sanctification 
of her members, and the salvation of mankind. 

The works of men have passed away with the ages ; 
but the Catholic Church alone has advanced steadily 
and irresistibly, because the Spirit of God impelled 
and sustained her, guided her bark securely past the 
shoals of error and deceit, and led her on when a 
wicked world and the powers of hell had combined 
to destroy her. 

This is the history of the Catholic Church today, 
and it will be her future history : a story of trials and of 
sorrows, of glory and of triumph. That it would be 
so, was, "in the first centuries of the Church, ... a 
mere matter of faith ; but every age, as it has come, 
has confirmed faith by actual sight; and shame on us, 

(225) 



226 



if, with the accumulated testimony of eighteen cen- 
turies, our eyes are too gross to see those victories 
which the saints have ever seen by anticipation". 
(Newman). Yes, shame on us if we do not feel proud 
of being members of this Church ; shame on us if 
we blush when our enemies unjustly speak ill of her. 
They may hold up before our eyes the faults of her 
children ; but these were not, and are not now the 
faults of the Church. They may speak of her intol- 
erance ; but it is an intolerance which will not allow 
the word of God to be replaced by the word of man. 
They may close her schools and her houses of worship, 
they may deceive some of her children, they may even 
banish her from cities or from kingdoms ; but she will 
live forever, being "fated not to die". Let us not 
despise, but rather pity those who know her not ; let 
us stand up on all occasions for her honor and her 
rights, and prove by our lives that we are loyal to her 
doctrines. Let us stand together in mighty organiza- 
tions, so as to show a common front to the enemies of 
the Church, and let us do all in our power to spread 
among our fellow-men the knowledge of Christ and 
of the Church. Above all, let us pray that all men, 
according to the desire of Christ Himself, may be 
gathered into her fold, so that "there may be but one 
flock and one shepherd". 

THE AUTHOR. 



NOTES 



Abbey, a monastery governed by an abbot. 

Alva, Duke of, a Spanish general under Charles V and Philip 
II. He was a great soldier, loyal to his king, irreproach- 
able in his private life, but a rigorous disciplinarian who 
was guided only by a stern sense of duty. He committed 
grievous errors of judgment, and flooded the Netherlands 
with blood and tears, but lie must be judged by the 
standards of his time. He was a terrible man, but not 
a bad man. 

Ancestor Worship. Among ancient peoples, and also among 
some modern nations like the Chinese, ancestor worship 
comprised a number of practices and beliefs amounting 
almost to religion. It consists in the veneration of fore- 
fathers, to the extent of keeping up all their old customs, 
and strenuously resisting all change. 

Anchorites, religious hermits, who sought the solitude of 
the desert, in preference to living in communities like the 
monks or cenobites. 

Antipope, one who falsely claims the Holy See in opposition 
to the pontiff canonically elected. There were about 
twenty-nine antipopes, of whom the last was Felix V 
(1439-1449). 

Apocalypse, the book of revelations written by St. John. 
Though full of mystery and obscure in themselves, these 
revelations are considered by the saints and the interpret- 
ers of Holy Scripture as a prophetic and instructive his- 
tory of the Catholic Church from its establishment to its 
final triumphant state in heaven. 

Archives, a room or building wherein records or documents 
are kept. 

Aristotle, a disciple of Plato, was perhaps the greatest of 
ancient philosophers. He was selected by King Philip 
of Macedon as the tutor of his son Alexander. No other 
pagan philosopher has exerted so large an influence upon 
succeeding ages. 

Arnauld, a Jansenist, known for his opposition to the Jesuits. 
His theological writings found warm partisans in all 
classes of society, even among the clergy, but he was 
refuted, and later his works were condemned. He was a 
learned man, but his erroneous teachings mar his best 
pages. 

(227) 



228 



Atheism, a system of thought opposed to theism, the basis 
of which is the belief in a personal God. 

Augustinus. This was a work contained in three volumes, 
printed after the death of Jansenius from his own manu- 
scripts. It contained the errors that led to the heresy- 
called Jansenism. 

Beatify. Persons who have led holy lives are said to be 
beatified, or pronounced "blessed" after death, when the 
permission to venerate them has been granted by the 
Roman Pontiffs. This veneration is restricted to certain 
places and to certain liturgical exercises. It precedes 
canonization. 

Berengarius, Archdeacon of Angers, and teacher at Tours. 
He was accused of teaching that the Sacrament of the 
Altar is merely a figure or a memorial of the true body 
and blood of Christ. After several condemnations of his 
doctrines, he finally retracted and died in union with the 
Church. 

Bramante, Donato, Italian architect and painter (1444-1514). 
One of his most famous works is a circular temple on 
the supposed spot of St. Peter's crucifixion. The design 
of St. Peter's Church in Rome is substantially his, 
although Michelangelo, as architect, carried out the plans. 

Bull, from the Latin word bulla, a stud or knob; so called on 
account of the leaden seal attached to papal decrees. This 
seal is impressed on one side with the image of the 
heads of Saints Peter and Paul, and on the other, with 
the name of the pope and the year of issue. The seal is 
attached to the paper with a hempen and a silken thread, 
the one indicating justice, the other, grace. 

Canon Law, the body of laws and regulations made or 
adopted by ecclesiastical authority for the government 
of the Church. In the fourth century, the word canon 
was applied to the ordinances of the councils; but the 
expression "canon law" became current only about the 
twelfth century, being used in contrast with "civil law". 
Canon law is also called "ecclesiastical law." Canons 
are certain rules of conduct or belief prescribed by the 
Church. 

Canova, Antonio, was the greatest Italian sculptor of modern 
times (1757-1852). He lifted the art of sculpture from the 
low condition to which it had fallen in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries. In 1815, Canova was sent to 
Paris as the pope's envoy, and he succeeded in recovering 
a large part of the art treasures which had been carried 
away from Italy by Napoleon. 



NOTES 229 

Catechumen, in the early Church, was the name applied to 
one who was undergoing a course of preparation, before 
being initiated into the sacred mysteries. 

Cerinthians, a small sect that existed in the Apostolic Age. 

Chaminade, William Joseph, born at Perigueux, France, in 
1761. He was ordained to the priesthood, and taught at 
the college of Mussidan until the outbreak of the French 
Revolution. In disguise, he then continued the exercises 
of the sacred ministry until compelled to flee from France 
in 1797. At Saragossa, Spain, he conceived the design 
of founding a religious order. This he carried out at 
Bordeaux in 1817, when he founded the Society of Mary, 
(Brothers of Mary). He also founded the Institute of 
the Daughters of Mary, and numerous sodalities for all 
classes and ages. Steps are now being taken for his 
canonization. 

Charles III, the last Carlovingian emperor who was at the 
same time King of France. His government was so weak 
that he was deposed by his nobles (887). 

Charles Martel, (See Martel). 

Chartreuse, a name given in France to any house of the 
Carthusian order. In England, their monasteries were 
called charter-houses. St. Bruno, who founded the order 
at Chartreaux in 1084, sought to establish a more ascetic 
form of life than that followed in the Benedictine monas- 
teries. Their life combined almost perpetual silence with 
other penances, manual labor, meditation and prayer. 

Cistercians, a rigorous order, named from Citeaux, a city in 
northern Burgundy, where their first monastery was 
founded in 1099. They were known as white monks on 
account of their habits of undyed woolen cloth. Their 
most illustrious member was St. Bernard. (See Clair- 
vaux). 

Civil Marriage. In some countries the civil ceremony of 
marriage is the only one recognized in the eyes of the 
law. In most of these countries, clergymen are for- 
bidden to perform the religious' ceremony before the 
civil marriage has taken place. 

Clairvaux, a monastery of the Cistercian order founded by 
St. Bernard in east-central France. (See Cistercians). 



230 NOTES 



Cluny, a celebrated Benedictine monastery founded in north- 
ern Burgundy (910). To avoid the evils of lay investi- 
ture, it was placed under the direct supervision of the 
pope. Although the rule required some manual labor, 
the monks spent most of their time in sacred and profane 
study, in copying manuscripts, and especially in teaching. 
They helped to develop the idea that the clergy should 
be wholly free from worldly interests, and should devote 
themselves entirely to the interests of the Church. 

Conclave, the closed room or hall especially set aside and 
prepared for the cardinals when electing a pope; also, the 
assembly of cardinals when electing a pope. Pope 
Gregory X, at the second Council of Lyons in 1274, 
caused it to be decided that the cardinals should not 
leave the conclave till the pope had been elected. 

Concordat, an agreement or a law made for a certain coun- 
try in regard to matters which in some way concern both 
the Church and the State. It has the force of a treaty, 
and its purpose is to end or avert dissensions between 
the Church and the civil powers. 

Confession of St. Peter. Our Divine Savior, speaking to His 
Apostles, said to them: "But whom do you say that I 
am"? Simon Peter answered and said: "Thou art Christ, 
the Son of the living God". Upon .this confession of His 
Divinity, Christ made St. Peter the head of His Church, 
saying: "Thou art Peter; and upon this rock I will build 
my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against 
it. And I will give to thee 'the keys of the kingdom of 
heaven." (See: Matt. XVI, 17-19, and John, XXL, 
15-17). 

Crescentians. Crescentius I and his son Crescentius II were 
Roman nobles. Their family possessed the castle of St. 
Angelo, and were related to Popes John XI and John XII. 

Curia (See: Roman Curia). 

Deism, a belief in the Supreme Being to the exclusion of 
revelation and the supernatural doctrines of Christianity. 
A deist is one who acknowledges the existence of God, 
but denies revelation. 

Diet, from the Latin word "dies", a day, meaning a conven- 
tion-day of princes, electors, ecclesiastical dignitaries, or 
other representatives, hence, a council or congress. 

Directory, the Government of France after the Reign of 
Terror, and before the rise of Napoleon (1795-1799). 
Under the constitution of the so-called Year III (1795) 
it consisted of five executives. 



NOTES 231 

Dogma, a truth regarding faith or morals, revealed by God, 
transmitted from the Apostles through the Scriptures or 
Tradition, and proposed by the Church for the acceptance 
of the faithful; hence, a revealed truth defined by the 
Church. Thus, for example, the dogma of the Immacu- 
late Conception. 

Ebionites, an early Christian sect infected with Judaistic 
errors. They denied the Divinity of Jesus Christ, and 
clung to the observance of the Jewish Law. 

Ecumenical Council, a council to which the bishops and others 
entitled to vote are convoked from the whole world under 
the presidency of the pope or his legates, and the decrees 
of which, having received the papal confirmation, bind all 
Christians. 

Encyclical, a papal document addressed to the patriarchs, 
archbishops and bishops of the universal Church, or, by 
exception, to the archbishops and bishops of a certain 
country. 

Excommunication, a cutting off or separation from the 
Church, and consequent loss of all spiritual benefits shared 
by its members. It is the most serious penalty inflicted 
by the Church. 

Fief, land for which the holder or vassal paid to the owner 
or lord certain services, usually military. 

Frederick I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (1152-11.90). 
He was called Barbarossa, or Redbeard, by the Italians. 
His reign was disturbed and his great power weakened 
by almost constant wars with the Italian cities. He died 
on the way to Palestine, during the third crusade. 

Gentiles, those who are neither Jews nor Christians. 

Gildas, Saint, surnamed the Wise, lived in the sixth century. 
He is regarded as the earliest British historian. He 
was a learned and saintly priest, and labored zealously 
for the Church in Ireland and in Northern Britain. 

Guise, Francis, Duke of, the champion of the Catholic cause 
during the Wars of Religion in France. 

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden (1611-1632), the "Lion 
of the North" and the champion of Protestantism. He 
was a military genius of the first order, and an experi- 
enced, brave, but unscrupulous conqueror. After his 
defeat by the Russians, he was killed by the Austrians 
in the battle of Luetzen. 



232 NOTES 

Holy Office, an inquisitorial tribunal that existed as early as 
the time of Innocent III (1194-1216), for the purpose 
of judging the Albigenses. Pope Paul III, in 1542, estab- 
lished it as a Roman Congregation of six cardinals. It is 
a final court of appeal for trials concerning the Faith. 

Hypostatic Union, a theological term used to express the 
revealed truth, that in Christ one person subsists in two 
natures, the Divine and the human. 

Insufflation, from the Latin term "insufHatio", means breath- 
ing. This ancient ceremony, the in-breathing of the 
Holy Ghost, symbolized the infusion of sanctifying grace 
by the sacrament. It has been retained by the Church in 
her rite for solemn baptism. 

Investiture, a term used in the eleventh and twelfth centuries 
to designate the act and the ceremonies by which the 
princes granted to bishops and abbots their titles, their 
benefices, and the political rights which they were to 
exercise. Since the thirteenth century it has been used 
to signify the act of putting one in possession of such a 
benefice. 

Joseph II, Emperor (1765-1790), and King of Austria (1780- 
1790). He was infected with the false philosophy of the 
eighteenth century, took the Protestant king of Prussia, 
Frederick II, as his model, and was a party to the infa- 
mous partition of Poland. (See Josephinism). 

Josephinism, a term applied to certain "reforms" established 
by Joseph II of Austria, under the influence of evil 
advisers. These "reforms'' dealt with matters which 
belonged exclusively to the Church, as Divine service, 
communication with the Holy See, theological instruction, 
and religious orders. For example, the number of candles 
to be used at Mass was prescribed, and, to preserve the 
forests, coffins were prohibited. 

Legate, a representative sent by the pope to a government 
or to a bishop in order to treat of Church matters, or to 
represent the pope at public functions. (See Nuncio). 

Leonine City. Pope Leo IV extended the walls of Rome so 
as to include that portion now occupied by St. Peter's 
and the Vatican. This part of the city was named 
Leonine in his honor. 

Liturgy. On the one hand, liturgy comprises all the official 
services, the rites, ceremonies, prayers, and sacraments 
of the Church, as opposed to private devotions. In 
another sense, the meaning of the word liturgy is 
restricted to the chief official service only — the Sacrifice 
of the Holy Eucharist, which in our rite we call the 
Mass. 



NOTES 233 

Lombards, from "long-beards"; a tribe of barbarians who 
settled in northern Italy in 568. They were subsequently 
conquered by Charlemagne. 

Lothaire II, the son of Emperor Lothaire I, and a great 
grandson of Charlemagne. He reigned as King of Lor- 
raine from 855 to 869. He divorced his wife and remar- 
ried. For this he was deposed by Pope Nicholas I. 

Louis XVI, King of France (1774-1793). Weak, irresolute 
and unfortunate, he abandoned his best ministers and 
the policies that might have saved France, rather than 
displease his friends and family. When the revolutionary 
mob grew more furious, the royal family attempted to 
flee from France, but they were recognized, arrested and 
imprisoned. He was executed on January 21, 1793. 

Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, and King of France 
after Napoleon's defeat and abdication (1814). Upon 
Napoleon's return from Elba, Louis fled to Ghent in 
Belgium. After the battle of Waterloo, he was restored 
to the throne (1815). France was then made a constitu- 
tional, hereditary kingdom. 

Louis, the Mild, the son and successor of Charlemagne, was 
also known as Louis I (814-840). 

Louvain, a city in Belgium, famous for its great Catholic 
University, which owes its foundation to a bull of Martin 
V (1425). In 1908 this university numbered 2260 students. 

Marie Antoinette, the unfortunate queen of Louis XVI of 
France. She was ever dignified and queenly, and full of 
Christian resignation. She was guillotined on October 
16, 1793. Her child, Louis XVII, was kept for two years 
in the Temple, in the power of a fiendish cobbler, Simon, 
under whose cruel treatment he died, in June, 1794. (See 
Louis XVI). 

Martel, Charles, Duke of the Franks, and father of Pepin. He 
defeated the Saracens at Tours, in a nine days' battle 
(732). The Saracens, retreating across the Pyrenees, soon 
left Gaul in possession of the Franks. 

Materialism, a false philosophical system which regards mat- 
ter as the only reality in the world. It undertakes to 
explain every event in the universe as resulting from the 
condition and activity of matter, and thus denies the 
existence of God and of the human soul. 



234 



Michelangelo Buonarotti, an Italian sculptor, painter and 
architect (1475-1564). Of a noble but poor family, he 
became, under the generous patronage of the Medici, one 
of the greatest artists of all times. Enduring monuments 
to his fame are the statue of Moses on the tomb of Pope 
Julius II, the paintings in the Sistine Chapel, and above 
all, the great St. Peter's Church in Rome, for the con- 
struction of which he deserves the greatest credit. (See 
Bramante). 

Moloch, the idol of the Ammonites, represented by a human 
figure with a bull's head. The figure was hollow, and 
made of bronze. The child to be sacrificed was placed 
upon the extended arms of the figure, while a fire, kindled 
in the interior, scorched the victim to death. 

Monte Cassino. The Abbey of Monte Cassino is situated 
about eighty miles south of Rome. The town of Cassino, 
lying at the foot of the mountains, had been destroyed 
by the Goths. One of the towers of the former citadel 
remained standing, and this furnished a temporary abode 
for St. Benedict, before he established his monastery 
there. 

Moors, dark-colored African or Asiatic races that had 
embraced Mohammedanism; Saracens or Arabs. 

Mosaics, among the Romans, were ornaments or pictures 
formed of pieces of marble, stone or glass of different 
colors, cut to a required shape. Mosaics became a vehicle 
of Christian art in the fourth century. The great period 
of Christian Mosaics was probably the thirteenth century. 

Moslem, Mohammedan; the Turkish name for true followers 
of Mohammed. 

Motu Proprio, the name given to certain papal rescripts on 
account of the words motu proprio (of his own accord) 
used in the document. The words signify that the pro- 
visions of the rescript were decided on by the pope 
personally, for reasons which he himself deemed sufficient. 

Mystic Theology, the science which treats of the special union 
of the soul with God, in which God makes His presence 
not only accepted by faith, but actually felt by experience. 
It comprises all extraordinary forms of prayer, private 
revelations, visions, ecstacies, raptures, etc. Famous 
mystics were: St. Gregory I the Great, St. Bernard, St. 
Bonaventure, St. Gertrude, St. Teresa, St. John of the 
Cross and St. Francis de Sales. 



NOTES 235 

Napoleon III, Louis Napoleon, elected President of the 
French Republic on December 10th, 1848, and crowned 
Emperor on December 2nd, 1852. His reign ended with 
his capture at Sedan, on September 1st, 1870, during the 
Franco-Prussian war. He died in England, in 1873. 

Nicolaites, a sect mentioned in the Apocalypse, as existing in 
several cities of Asia Minor. 

Nicole, Pierre (1625-1695). He applied himself to the study 
of St. Augustine and of St. Thomas, and received the 
degree of Bachelor of Theology, but later fell in with 
the Jansenistic leader, Arnauld. He was refused admis- 
sion to Holy Orders. 

Novatians, a sect founded by Novatian, a schismatic of the 
third century. He was a Roman priest, and made himself 
antipope. 

Nuncio, an ordinary and permanent representative of the 
pope. His mission is general, embracing both political 
and ecclesiastical powers, but the territory, or nunciature, 
wherein he must reside, is definite. 

Octave, a period of eight days, during which the principal 
holydays of the year are celebrated. 

Old Catholicism, a sect organized in German-speaking coun- 
tries to combat the dogma of Papal Infallibility (1870). 
In Germany and Switzerland, Old Catholics abolished 
confession, celibacy, and the use of the Latin for the 
service of the altar. Old Catholicism has ceased to be of 
any public importance at the present time. 

Oratorio, a musical composition for solo voices, chorus, 
orchestra and organ, set to a religious text generally taken 
from Holy Scripture. 

Pascal, Blaise, (1623-1662), was one of the ablest of French 
writers, but unfortunately, he undertook the defense of 
Jansenism. He led a rather mortified life, and died an 
edifying death. 

Pentecost (of the Jews), the feast commemorating the 
giving of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai, fifty days 
after the Passover. 

Philip II, King of Spain and Emperor (1555-1598). The most 
powerful king of the sixteenth century. After a cruel 
war, he confiscated the Moorish possessions in Granada, 
and transplanted the conquered nation into other prov- 
inces in order to break up its separate national existence. 

Photius was introduced into the patriarchal chair of Constan- 
tinople, while Ignatius, the lawful patriarch, was deposed 
and banished (857). Photius was the chief author of the 
great schism between the East and the West. 



236 NOTES 

Plato, a Greek philosopher, born about 429 B. C. His writings 
reveal lofty and religious aspirations toward the beautiful 
and the good. 

Port-Royal, a monastery near Paris. Under the Abbe 
de St-Cyran it became the hotbed of Jansenism. Port- 
Royal produced a great impression upon the seventeenth 
century; almost all the great writers felt its influence. 
Racine was its pupil, and Pascal, its most distinguished 
champion. 

Prefecture Apostolic, a country in which, owing to the small 
number of the faithful, or to particular circumstances, 
there is no resident bishop. In this case, the Church is 
governed by a prefect apostolic appointed by the Holy 
See. A prefect apostolic is of lower rank than a vicar. 

Premonstratensians, an order founded at Premontre, in 
France, about 1121 by St. Norbert. Its members were 
known as Canons Regular, or as Augustinian Canons, 
because they followed the rule believed to have been 
framed by St. Augustine. They formed the first great 
order that applied itself particularly to the care of souls 
in parish work. 

Proconsul, an officer, who, though not actually holding the 
office of consul, exercised in some particular locality all 
the powers of a consul. The office was held for a year. 

Propaganda. The Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda 
(propagate, to spread) is that department of the pontifical 
administration which is charged with the spread of Cathol- 
icism, and with the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in 
non-Catholic countries. (See Roman Congregations.) 

Rationalism, a system of opinions deduced from reason 
(ratio, reason). In its usual sense, the term covers the 
view that human reason or understanding is the sole 
source and final test of all truth. 

Reichsrath, the Austrian Congress, resembling our House of 
Representatives and Senate. 

Reign of Terror, from September, 1793, to August, 1794. An 
orgy of blood, in France, during which thousands of 
Frenchmen were sacrificed to the fury of the revolution- 
ists. It was a crime to be rich, noble, learned or pious. 
All prisons were overfilled. At Nantes, several thousand 
prisoners died of typhoid, and at Anjou, hundreds were 
guillotined to make room for more. The Committee of 
Public Safety even abolished the calling of witnesses and 
hearing of evidence. The judges, being allowed as much 
wine as they could drink, condemned immediately and 
outright all that were brought before them. 



NOTES 237 

Rite, the manner of performing Divine service. Thus, for 
example, whereas Holy Mass is everywhere celebrated 
with bread and wine, over which the words of consecra- 
tion are said, still in the Eastern Churches, and in several 
religious orders, peculiarities in the manner of saying the 
Mass are allowed. 

Robespierre, Maximilian, a bloodthirsty monster, who is 
mainly responsible for the butchery of thousands of inno- 
cent persons during the Reign of Terror. The fear inspired 
by his bloody dictatorship as leader of the Committee of 
Public Safety, encouraged his enemies to devise his fall. 
On July 27, 1794, he was greeted with shouts of "Down 
with the tyrant". In the evening he was arrested and 
exposed (with a bullet-fractured jaw, the result of 
attempted suicide), to the taunts of his foes. The next 
morning, to complete the irony of fate, he was sent 
whither he had sent so many others, to the guillotine. 
(See Reign of Terror.) 

Roman Congregations, different departments consisting of 
cardinals, organized by the Holy See at various times to 
assist in transacting the affairs of the Church. Their 
decisions usually require pontifical approval. They are 
distinguished as Congregations of the Sacraments, of the 
Index, of Rites, etc. (See Holy Office.) 

Roman Curia, a general name used to designate the various 
departments or ministries which assist the sovereign 
pontiff in the government of the universal Church. 

Saint Catherine of Siena, (1347-1380). She belonged to the 
Third Order of St. Dominic. After a time spent in soli- 
tude, she rejoined her family, tended" the sick, served the 
poor and labored for the conversion of sinners. While 
suffering intense physical pain, she lived for long periods 
on practically no other food than the Blessed Sacrament. 
By Divine command she entered public life, and wrote 
letters of advice and instruction to men and women in 
every condition of life. 

Saint Bartholomew's Day. The massacre of French Protes- 
tants occurred in Paris on the feast of St. Bartholomew, 
August 24th, 1572. It was continued in the provinces 
during the following weeks. The massacre was planned 
by Catherine de Medici, who forced her irresolute son, 
Charles IX, to consent to its execution. The royal 
decision was not the result of religious disturbances, but 
rather a political act against a faction that annoyed the 
court. 



238 NOTES 

Sanctuary, a consecrated place giving refuge to those fleeing 
from justice or persecution; or, the privilege of taking 
refuge in such a consecrated place. The right granted 
protection for thirty or forty days. It was recognized 
under the Code of Theodosius (399), and papal sanction 
was given it by Leo I, about 460. Violation of the pro- 
tection of sanctuary was punishable with excommunica- 
tion. 

Sanhedrin of Jerusalem, the supreme judicial tribunal of the 
Jews. It consisted of a president, who was generally the 
High Priest, and of seventy members, who were chosen 
from among the priests, the elders, the heads of families, 
and the scribes or doctors of the law. This tribunal 
watched closely over the strict fulfillment of the Law, 
and issued decrees which were readily obeyed by all the 
Jews. There were local Sanhedrins in other parts of the 
Holy Land and far beyond. 

Saracens, a general term, including all the tribes that 
embraced the Mohammedan religion. 

Seneca, a Roman stoic philosopher, born shortly before the 
Christian era. He was not a b?liever in the pagan super- 
stitions of his country, but rather acknowledged the 
existence of God. 

Simonians, a sect of the second century. Its adherents 
regarded Simon Magus as its founder. 

Simony, a name derived from Simon Magus. It designates 
the sin of those who offer money for spiritual dignities 
or offices. 

Sobieski, John, King of Poland (1674-1696). His military 
abilities were developed in youth in the wars against the 
Cossacks and Swedes, in which he took part. But what 
will render his name forever illustrious is the relief of 
Vienna in 1683. He saved Europe, as did Charles Martel. 
from the power of the Turks. 

Sorbonne, the faculty of theology at the University of Paris. 
It was named after Robert de Sorbon (1201-1274), a dis- 
tinguished professor and famous preacher. He decided 
that the university should provide free lectures, after the 
example of some Franciscan and Dominican colleges. 

States General, established by Philip the Fair of France about 
1300. It consisted of representatives, not only of the 
nobles and clergy, but also of the commons, or towns- 
people (third estate). It was modeled somewhat after the 
English Parliament, was assembled only when the king 
chose, and never became a governing body. 



NOTES 239 



St-Cyran, known as the second founder of Jansenism. He 
gradually pushed his way into the celebrated monastery 
of Port-Royal, and soon became its director. Port-Royal 
became the center of Jansenism, and many ecclesiastics, 
lawyers, writers, etc., were drawn to it to place themselves 
under the "spiritual domination" of the Abbe de St-Cyran.- 

Subiaco, a city in the province of Rome. When St. Benedict, 
at the age of fourteen, retired from the world, he lived 
here for three years in a cave near the river Anio. He 
was supplied with the necessaries of life by a monk, St. 
Roman. 

Suffragan. In the Catholic Church, an archbishop or metro- 
politan in the present sense of the term, is a bishop who 
governs a diocese strictly his own, called archdiocese, 
while he presides at the same time over bishops of other 
dioceses. The subordinate bishops are called suffragans 
or comprovincials. The several dioceses together form 
an archiepiscopal or metropolitan province. 

Synagogues, the recognized places of worship among the 
Jews. They were established in all the Jewish towns, and 
were so constructed that the worshippers, as they entered 
and as they prayed, had their faces turned toward Jeru- 
salem. At the extreme eastern end there was a model of 
the holy ark, containing copies of the Pentateuch or five 
books of Moses. In front of the ark was the raised 
stand for the reader or preacher. The men sat on one 
side and the women on the other, being separated from 
each other by a partition about six feet high. 

Tiara, the triple crown worn by the pope on certain occasions. 
It is a sign of his temporal power, as the keys are a 
sign of his spiritual power. Tiara was the name given 
to an ancient Persian cap. 

Teutons, the ancient inhabitants of Germany. 

Thesis, a proposition which a person advances and offers to 
maintain, or which is actually maintained by argument 
against objections. 

Thorwaldsen, Bertel (1770-1844), a famous Danish sculptor. 
Though sculpture in the nineteenth century achieved an 
unexpected development, it produced but one master who 
was recognized by all nations as pre-eminent, the Dane, 
Bertel Thorwaldsen. 

Toledo, Archdiocese of, is the primatial see of Spain. Its 
archbishop, who is generally raised to the dignity of 
cardinal, occupies the first place in the ranks of the higher 
Spanish clergy. 



240 NOTES 

Trinitarians, an order founded in Southern France by St. 
John of Matha, for the purpose of freeing Christian cap- 
tives among the Spanish Moors. The friars rode from 
town to town collecting the ransom money. 

Vassal, one who obtained his property or fief from his lord 
on condition of performing military service. 

Vespers, the Office of the Church which is sung or recited 
towards evening. On Sundays, it is the Office most likely 
to bring the faithful together in church for the second 
time, and thus becomingly completes the Divine service 
for the day. 

Vicariate, a missionary region governed by the Holy See 
through a delegate, called vicar apostolic. He is usually 
a consecrated bishop of some titular see, and has about 
the same powers in his district that a bishop has in his 
diocese. (See Prefecture Apostolic.) 

Vulgate, the Latin version of the Holy Scripture. It was so 
called from the Latin "vulgaris", which means common, 
because this version was most commonly used. 

Westphalia, Treaty of. The Thirty Years War of Europe 
ended with the general Peace of Westphalia (1648), which 
contained numerous violations of the rights of the Church. 
By this Peace, Germany was divided into two parts, the 
north being Protestant, and the south and west, Catholic. 



INDEX 

(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Abbots, 122. 

Abstinence, 291. 

Abyssinia, SO, 228. 

Adoration, Perpetual, 291. 

Adrian, I, 130. 

Adrian, II, 132 

Africa, 80, 228, 287. 

Agatha, St., 39. 

Agnes, St., 41. 

Alaric, 71. 

Alban, St., 76. 

Albert of Brandenburg, 194, 

196. 
Albertus Magnus, 166, 297. 
Albi, 156. 
Albigenses, 140, 144, 156, 158, 

159, 163. 
Alcuin, 128. 
Alemanni, 78. 
Alexandria, Svnod of, 97. 
Alexander II, Czar, 279. 
Alexander II, 118. 
Alexander III, 142, 144. 
Alexander V, 169. 
Alexander VII, 229. 
[ Alexander, St., Bishop, 39. 
Algiers, 287. 
Algonquins, 224. 
Alphonsus, St., 246. 
Alva, Duke of, 160. 
Ambrose, St., 91, 106, 107. 
Anabaptists, 200. 
Ananias, 16. 
Anarchy, 251, 283. 
Andrew, St., 34. 
Angela Merici, St., 217. 
Angelus, 173. 
Anglican Schism, 203. 
Anglican Church, 206. 
Anne, Queen of England, 208. 
Anselm, St., 166. 
Anthony of Coma, St., 90. 



Antioch, 15, 16. 
Antoninus, Emperor, 56. 
Apocalypse, 19. 
Apollonia, St., 39. 
Apologists, 55. 
Apostles, 10, 11. 
Architecture, 149, 150, 219. 
Architecture, Gothic, 150, 175. 
Architecture, Romanesque, 150. 
Arianism, 67, 74, 97. 
Aristotle, 4. 
Armenians, 288. 
Arnauld, 234. 
Arts, 174, 175. 
Asia, 79, 288. 
Asia Minor, 38, 288. 
Aspersion, Baptism by, 146. 
Assembly, Constitutional, 252. 
Assembly, Legislative, 254. 
Associations of Worship, 268. 
Athanasius, St., 91, 97, 106, 107 
Attila, 71. 
Augsburg, 195. 
Augustine, St., 76, 91, 96, 99, 

106, 107, 152, 166. 
Augustinians, 192. 
Augustinus, of Jansenius, 189, 

190, 234. 
Augustus, Roman Emperor, 8. 
Australia, 286. 
Austria, 276. 
Austrians, in Italy, 263. 
Avignon, 167, 168, 169, 233, 253, 

258. 

Baius, 234. 

Baltimore, Council of, 281. 

Baltimore, See of, 233. 

Baptism, 51, 88, 146. 

Baptists, 209. 

Barbarism, 73. 

Bardas, 132. 

(241) 



242 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Bari, Archbishop of, 168. 

Barnabites, 216. 

Baronius, 215. 

Basil, St., 90, 97, 106, 107. 

Basle, Council of, 177. 

Benedict III, 113. 

Benedict V, 116. 

Benedict IX, 116. 

Benedict XII, 167. 

Benedict XIII, 169, 170, 248. 

Benedict XIV, 232, 244, 247. 

Benedict XV, 267. 

Benedict, St., 93, 152. 

Benedict, Order of, 177. 

Benedictines, 93, 151, 177, 292. 

Benefices, 165. 

Belgium, 272, 273. 

Belgrade, 231. 

Bellini, 219. 

Bells, 89. 

Berengarius, 146. 

Bernard, St., 138, 156. 

Bible, 174. 

Bismarck, 275, 294. 

Bishops, As vassals, 122. 

Bishops, Election of, 84, 135, 

141, 253. 
Bishops, Functions of, 47. 
Bishops, "in partibus", 143. 
Bishops, Metropolitan, 50. 
Bishops, Titular, 143. 
Bodenstein, 200. 
Bohemia, 180. 
Boleyn, Anne, 203, 206. 
Bologna, University of, 165. 
Bonaventure, St., 166. 
Boniface IX, 169. 
Boniface, St., 78. 
Bourbon, House of, 268. 
Bourges, University of, 165. 
Bourne, Cardinal, 278. 
Brahmanism, 225. 
Bramante, 193, 219. 
Brazil, 260. 271, 285. 
Brethren of St. Mary, 155. 
Breviary, 266. 
Bridget, St., 172. 
Britain, Conversion of, 76. 



Britons, 76. 

Brothers of Christian Schools, 

245. 
Brothers of Mary, 254. 
Buddhism, 225, 226. 
Burkhart, Bishop, 176. 

Caecilian, 96. 

Caesar Augustus, 9. 

Caesarea, 16. 

Cajetan, Cardinal, 195. 

Calixtus II, 135, 144. 

Calvin, 192, 198, 201, 209, 213. 

Cambridge, University of, 

165. 
Campania, 72. 
Canada, 282. 

Canadians, French, 282. 
Canalejas, 270. 
Candia, 230. 
Canon Law, 145. 
Canonization of Saints, 249. 
Canova, 258. 
Canterbury, 166. 
Capitoline Hill, 185. 
Capitularies, 133. 
Capuchins, 216, 228. 
Carbonari, 261, 269. 
Cardinals, Insignia of, 142. 
Cardinals, Number of, 186. 
Cardinals, Title of, 121, 189. 
Carmelites, 155. 
Carroll, John,' 281. 
Carthage, 96, 287. 
Carthusians, 177. 
Catacombs, 43. 

Catechumens, Baptism of, 51. 
Catechumens, Mass of, 53. 
Cathedrals, Monuments of art, 

149, 175, 182. 
Catherine, St., 168, 172. 
Catherine II, of Russia, 279. 
Catherine of Aragon, 203, 205 
Catherine Tehgahkwita, 224. 
Celibacy, 87. 
Center Party, 275, 294. 
Central America, 284. 
Chalcedon, Council of, 83. 



243 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Chaldeans, 288. 

Chaminade, William Joseph, 

254. 
Chant, Gregorian, 89, 127, 266, 

291. 
Charity, Sisters of, 218. 
Charlemagne, 109, 128. 
Charlemagne, Successors of, 

129. 
Charles Borromeo, St., 216. 
Charles III, 115. 
Charles V, 195. 
Charles IX, 216. 
Charles X, 268. 
Chartreuse, 155. 
China, 227, 268. 
Chinese, 1. 
Chivalry, 133, 139. 
Choiseul, Duke de, 243. 
Christian Brothers, 245. 
Christina, Queen of Sweden, 

229. 
Church and State, 109, 110. 
Church, Greek, 144. 
Church, Influence of, 182. 
Church, Russian, 279. 
Cistercians, 155, 177, 292. 
Clairvaux, 138. 
Claudius, Emperor, 17. 
Clement of Alexandria, 58. 
Clement II, 116. 
Clement V, 167. 
Clement VI, 168, 169. 
Clement VII, 203. 
Clement IX, 230. 
Clement XII, 244, 248. 
Clement XIV, 243, 247, 248. 
Clergy, 85. 

Clermont, Council of, 138. 
Clotilda, 75. 
Clovis, 75. 
Cluny, 151, 155. 
College, Latin American, 264. 
College, U. S. of America, 264. 
Coliseum, 248. 
Colombia, 285. 
Columbia, St., 77. 
Communion, Age for, 266. 



Communion, Frequent, 231, 266, 
291. 

Communion, Holy, 53, 88, 123. 

Concordat, 256. 

Conferences, 295. 

Confession, 52, 88. 

Confession of Forty-two Arti- 
cles, 204. 

Confessors, 89. 

Confirmation, 15, 51, 88. 

Congo, 228. 

Congregation of the Inquisition, 
158. 

Congregation of the Propa- 
ganda, 188. 

Congregations, Roman, 186. 

Congress, Eucharistic, 278. 

Conrad of Germany, 138. 

Constance, Council of, 170, 171, 
177, 180. 

Constantine, 42, 66, 67, 85, 96, 
97. 

Constantine V, 130. 

Constantinople, Council of, 83. 

Constantius, 41, 42, 67, 98. 

Constitution, Civil, of the 
Clergy, 253. 

Constitution of U. S., 281. 

Convention, National, 255. 

Copernicus, 297. 

Cornelius, Conversion of, 16. 

Correggio, 219. 

Cortes, 283. 

Costa Rica, Delegate to, 284. 

Councils, 144. 

Councils, Ecumenical, 86. 

Councils, General, 27. 

Councils, Provincial, 50. 

Court of High Commission, 
206. 

Cranmer, 203, 204. 

Creed of Pius IV, 212. 

Crescentians, 116. 

Cromwell, 203, 208. 

Cross, Sign of, 53. 

Cross, True, 66. 

Crusades, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140. 
146, 153. 



244 



( Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Curia, The Roman, 266. 
Cyprian, St., 44, 61. 
Cyprus, Island of, 15. 
Cyril, St., 97, 100. 

D'Alembert, 241. 

Damascene, John, St., 130. 

Damian, Peter, St., 129. 

Dante, 166. 

Da Vinci, Leonardo, 175, 219. 

De Beaumont, 236. 

De Bouillon, Godfrey, 138. 

De Chauliac, Guv, 297. 

Decius, 39, 249. 

Decretals, 145. 

Decretum of Gratian, 145. 

Degrees, Conferring of, 165. 

Deism, 237. 

Delegation, Apostolic, 265. 

De Rossi, 263. 

Diderot, 241. 

Dioceses, Formation of, 49. 

Dioceses in the United States, 

258. 
Diocletian, 41. 
Discipline, Penitential, 52. 
Discipline, Liturgical, 53, 89. 
Discoveries, 297. 
Dissidents, 206. 
Divina Commedia, 166. 
Doctors of the Church, 27, 106. 

166. 
Doctrine, Teaching of, 174. 
Dogma, 27. 
Dominicans, 147, 155. 159, 160, 

166. 176, 227, 287, 292. 
Dominicans, Foundation of, 

184. 
Domitian, 34. 
Dom Miguel, 271. 
Dom Pedro, 271. 
Donatism, 96. 
Drama, Religious, 148. 
Duerer, 219. 

Edesius, 80. 
Education, 268. 
Education, Godless, 280. 



Edward VI, 204, 205, 206. 
Egypt, 9. 
Egyptians, 1. 
Election of Popes, 188. 
Elizabeth, Queen of England, 

205, 206. 207, 208. 
Emancipation Bill, 278. 
Empire, Christian, 108. 
Empire, German, 275. 
Empire, Greek, 108. 
Empire, Latin, 138. 
Empire. Moslem, 108. 
Empire, Roman, Decay of, 70. 
Empire, Roman, Fall of, 72. 
Empire, Western Roman, 109. 
Encyclicals, 265, 267. 
England, 286. 
Ephesus, 19. 
Episcopalians, 209. 
Epistles, 174. 

Erfurth, University of, 192. 
Esquimaux, 224. 
Ethelbert, 76. 
Eucharist, Holv, 51, 88, 146, 

157. 
Eudists, 215. 
Eugene III, 138, 156. 
Eusebius, Historian, 107. 
Eusebius, Saint, 91. 
Eusebius of Caesarea, 44. 
Eutychianism, 101. 
Excommunication, 171. 
Extreme Unction, 51, 88. 

Fabian, Saint, 39. 

Family, Influence of Church 

upon, 104. 
Fasts. 248. 291. 
Fathers, Apostolic, 28. 
Fathers of the Church, 28, 54, 

106. 
Fathers, Cappadocian, 107. 
Feasts, 89, 125. 
Felicitas, Saint, 37. 
Felix IV, 84. 

Ferdinand, King of Spain, 160. 
Ferdinand VII, 270. 



245 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Fichte, 242. 

Flavius Clemens, 34. 

Florence, 263. 

Forty Hours, 291. 

Forum, Roman, 8. 

Fra Angelico, 175. 

France, 162, 268. 

France and Lutheranism, 202. 

Frances de Chantal, Saint, 217. 

Franciscans, 147, 152, 155, 160, 

192, 248, 283, 292. 
Francis de Sales, Saint, 217. 
Francis of Asissi, Saint, 152. 
Francis I of France, 183. 
Francis of Paula, Saint, 177. 
Francis Xavier, Saint, 188, 213, 

225, 226. 
Frangois de Paris, 236. 
Franks, 75. 
Frederick, Elector of Saxony, 

195, 196. 
Frederick I, Emperor, 159. 
Frederick II, Emperor, 138, 140. 
Frederick the Great, 239. 
Freemasons, 232, 244, 251, 259, 

268, 269, 271. 276, 280. 
Free-thinkers, 7, 237, 238, 273. 
French in Rome, 263. 
Friars Minor, 152, 292. 
Friars Preachers, 152. 
Fribourg, 277. 
Frumentius, Saint, 80. 

Gaeta, 263. 

Galerius, 41, 42. 

Galilee, 9. 

Games, Sacred, of Romans, 3. 

Garibaldi, 263, 269. 

Geneva, 192, 198, 201, 277. 

Genoa, 293. 

Genseric, 71. 

Gentiles, 16. 

Germain, St., Abbey, 254. 

Germanus, 130. 

Germany, 165, 275 

Germany, Conversion of, 78. 

Gibbons, Cardinal, 265. 

Gnosticism, 54. 



Goethe, 242. 

Gospels, 174. 

Gratian, 145. 

Great Britain, 278. 

Gregorian Calendar, 185. 

Gregorian Chapel, 185. 

Gregorv the Great, Saint, 106. 

Gregory IT, 130. 

Gregory IV, 111. 

Gregory V, 116. 

Gregorv VI, 116. 

Gregory VII, 134, 135. 151. 

164. 
Gregory IX, 145, 159, 160. 
Gregory X, 144. 
Gregorv XI, 167, 168. 
Gregory XIII, 185. 
Gregory XV, 188, 220. 
Gregory XVI, 260, 262. 
Gregory Nazianzus, Saint, 97, 

107." 
Gregorv of Nvssa, Saint, 97, 

106, 107. 
Guarantee, Law of, 263. 
Guido of Arezzo, 127. 
Guise, 202. 

Hegira, 81. 
Helena, Saint, 66. 
Helvetius, 241. 
Henry III, Emperor, 116. 
Henry IV of France, 187. 
Henry V of Germany, 135. 
Henry VI of Germany, 138. 
Henry VIII of England, 203, 

205, 206, 213. 
Heresies, 54, 178. 
Heresies, Origin of, 95. 
Herod, 9. 

Hilarion, Saint, 90. 
Hindoos, 225. 
Holbein, 219. 
Holland, 272, 274. 
Holydays, 248, 291. 
Holy Orders, 51, 88. 
Honorius, 71. 
Huguenots, 202. 
Humbert, Cardinal, 129. 



246 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Hungary, 276. 
Huns, 78. 
Hurons, 224. 
Huss, 172, 180. 
Hussites, 157. 

Iconoclasts, 130. 

Ignatius, Saint, 28, 35. 

Ignatius Loyola. St., 188, 213. 

Ignatius, Patriarch, 132. 

Illinois Indians, 224. 

Images, Veneration of, 53, 130. 

Immaculate Conception, 264. 

Immersion, Baptism by, 51. 146. 

Immigrants, 281. 

India, 225, 288. 

Indians, 282. 

Indo-China, 288. 

Indulgences, 193, 194, 195. 

Infallibility, Dogma of, 264. 

Infidels, 268. 

Infusion. Baptism by, 51. 146. 

Innocent III, 138, 144, 156, 158. 

Innocent IV. 144. 

Innocent VIII, 176. 

Innocent X, 190. 

Innocent XI, 231. 248. 

Innsbruck, 216. 

Inquisition. 156. 158, 159, 160, 

161, 162, 163. 
Inquisitors, 159. 160, 161. 
Institute, Biblical, 266. 
Institutions, Charitable, 102, 

105. 
Interdict, 124, 187. 
Invasions. Barbarian. 71. 
Investiture, 134. 135. 144 
Ireland. 77, 208, 278. 286. 
Ireland, Archbishop, 281. 
Irenaeus, Saint, 37. 57. 
Irene. 130. 
Iroquois Indians, 224. 
Isabella, Q. of Spain, 160. 
Isabella II, 270. 
Isidor. Saint. 188. 
Islamism, 81, 139. 
Israelites, 5. 
Italy, 109, 163, 269. 



James, St., Apostle, 51. 

James, St., the Elder, 31. 

James, St., the Younger, 20. 

James I, K. of Aragon, 160. 

Jansenist Errors, 235. 

Jansenists, 190, 230, 243. 

Jansenius, 234. 

Japan, 226, 288. 

lerome, St., 91, 99, 106, 107. 

Jerusalem, 7. 

Jerusalem, Destruction of, 21, 

31. 
Jerusalem, Temple of, 12, 21, 

68. 
Tesuits, 223, 227, 239, 259, 277, 

282, 283, 294. 
Jesuits, Suppression of, 243. 
Jesus, Society of, 213. 
jews. 5, 6. 13. 
John Baptist de la Salle, St., 

245. 
John Capistran, St.. 172, 181. 
John Cbrysostom. St., 106, 107. 
John nf Austria, 184. 
John XI. 115. 
John XII, 116. 
John XXII. 173. 
John XXIII. 179. 
John. St., Apostle. 14, 15. 
John, St., Evangelist, 19, 28. 
John, St.. Gospel of, 29. 
John the Baptist, St., 10. 
Jordan, River, 10. 
Joseph, Saint, 291. 
Joseph I. Emperor, 276. 
Joseph II, Emperor, 233, 276. 
Josephites, 276. 
Journalism, 265. 
Julian, the Apostate, 68. 
Julius II. 193. 203. 
Julius III, 205. 

Jurisprudence, School of, 165. 
Justin, Saint, 56, 64. 
Justinian. 87. 

Kant. 242. 

Knighthood, 153. 

Knights Hospitalers, 138, 155. 



247 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Knights Templar, 138, 155. 
Knights Teutonic, 138, 155. 
Knox, 207. 
Koran, 81. 
Korea, 288. 
Kulturkampf, 275, 294. 

Lackland, John, 140. 

Lanfranc, 129, 166. 

Las Casas, 222. 

Lateran Council, I, II, 144, 

266. 
Lateran Council, III, 142, 144, 

156. 
Lateran Council, IV, 144, 146, 

159. 
Lateran Council, V, 171. 
Lateran, Palace of, 186. 
Laval University, 282. 
Lavigerie, Cardinal, 287. 
Lawrence, Saint, 40. 
Laws, Canon, 266. 
Laws, May, 275. 
Lazarists, 216, 288. 
Legates, 141. 
Legations, 263. 
Legion, Theban, 41. 
Legislation, Influence of the 

Church upon, 103. 
Lent, 52. 
Leipsic, 194. 
Leo I, Saint, 71, 87. 
Leo III, Saint, 109. 
Leo IV, Saint, 112. 
Leo VIII, 116. 
Leo IX, Saint, 117. 
Leo X, 171, 183, 193, 194, 195, 

203. 
Leo XII, 259. 
Leo XIII, 207, 265, 271, 288, 

291, 294. 
Leo the Isaurian,- 130. 
Leonine City, 112. 
Leopold I, K. of Belgium, 273. 
Lepanto, Battle of, 184. 
Lessing, 242. 

Liberal Philosophy, 223. 
Liberalism, 264. 



Liberals, 271, 296. 

Licinius, 42, 66. 

Lisbon, 271. 

Literary Activity, 107. 

Literature, 265. 

Lodges, Masonic, 283, 285. 

London, 278. 

Loreto, Litany of, 184. 

Louis VII of France, 138. 

Louis IX, Saint, 138. 

Louis XIV, 238. 

Louis XV, 238. 

Louis XVI, 244, 255. 

Louis XVIII, 257, 268. 

Louis Philippe, 268. 

Louvain, 273. 

Lucerne, 277. 

Lucius III, 157, 159. 

Luther, 192, 196. 

Luther, Condemnation of, 195. 

Luther, Death of, 197. 

Luther, Doctrines of, 197, 209. 

213. 
Lyons, Church of, 57. 
Lyons, Council of, I, II, 144. 

Macarius, Saint, 66. 

Macedonianism, 98. 

Madagascar, 287. 

Magic Arts, 176. 

Mamertus, Saint, 89. 

Manners and Morals, Influence 

of Church upon, 105. 
Mani, 54. 
Manichaeans, 54. 
Manning, Cardinal, 278. 
Marcellina, Saint, 94. 
Marcellinus, Saint, 41. 
Marcellus, Saint, 41. 
Marco Polo, 297. 
Marcus Aurelius, 35. 
Marie Antoinette, 255. 
Marina, Saint, 94. 
Maronites, 288. 
Marozia, 115. 
Martel, Charles, 136. 
Martin, Saint, 91. 
Martin V, 170, 171. 



248 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Martyrdom : Its Meaning, 145. 
Martyrs, Number of, 44. 
Mary, the Blessed Virgin, 

Feasts of, 89. 
Mary, Society of, 254. 
Mary Tudor, 205, 206. 
MarVknoll, 288. 
Mass, Holy. 53, 89, 123. 146. 
Mass of the Faithful, 53. 
Mass of the Catechumens, 53. 
Massacre of Carmelites, 254. 
Massacre, St. Bartholomew's 

Day, 202. 
Materialism, 237. 
Matrimony. 51. 88, 125, 146, 265. 
Matthias, 13, 22. 
Maurice, Saint, 41. 
Maximin of Thrace, 38. 
May Laws. 294. 
Mazzini, 263, 269. 
Medicine, Schools of, 165. 
Medina. 81. 

Mendicant Orders, 162, 166. 
Metropolitan Bishops, 50. 
Metropolitan Sees, 49. 
Mexico, 283. 
Michael Cerularius, 132. 
Michael III, 132. 
Michelangelo, 193, 219. 
Middle Ages, 149. 155, 162, 166, 

297. 
Milan. Edict of. 42, 66. 
Minim Friars, 177. 
Missionaries, 282. 
Missionaries, French. 268. 
Missionaries, Labors of, 221. 
Missions, African, Fathers of, 

287. 
Missions. 261, 265, 268, 287. 
Missions, Priests of the, 216. 
Modernism. 266, 267. 
Mohammed, 81. 
Mohammedanism, 136. 
Moloch, 3. 
Monasteries, Organization of, 

154. 
Monastic Life, 90, 151. 
Monastic Life, Rule of, 93. 



Monasticism in the West, 91. 
Monasticism, Object of, 92. 
Monks, Labors of, 93. 
Monophysites, 101. 
Monte Cassino, 93. 
Monte Celio, 247. 
Montesquieu, 241. 
Moors, 140. 
Moreno, Garcia, 296. 
Moses, Law of, 7, 16. 
Motu Proprio, 266. 
Mozambique, 228. 
Munzer, 200. 
Murillo. 250. 
Museums, 261. 
Music, in Churches, 219. 
Music, Profane, 291. 
Mysteries, 148. 
Mythology, 2. 

Naples, University of. 15. 

Napoleon, 256, 257, 268, 270. 

Napoleon III, 263. 

Nazareth, 9. 

Nero, 33. 

Nestorianism, 100. 

Netherlands, 160, 272. 

New Zealand, 286. 

Nicaea, Council of, 83, 84, 97. 

Nicholas I, 114. 

Nicholas II, 118. 

Nicholas I, Czar, 279. 

Nicholas II, Czar, 279. 

Nicole, 234. 

Norbertines, 155. 

North America, Missions in, 

224. 
Nuncios, 141. 

Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 

282. 
Oceania. 288. 

O'Connell. Daniel, 260, 278, 293. 
Odilon, Saint, 126. 
Odoacer, 72. 
Office. Holy, 158. 
Olier, Rev., 215. 



249 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Oratorians, 215. 

Ordeals, 133. 

Orders, Holy, 51, 88. 

Orders, Military, 153. 

Orders, Minor, 48. 

Orders, Religious, 155. 

Orders, Teutonic, 196. 

Origen, 60. 

Orleans, Synod of, 84. 

Orleans, House of, 268. 

Otho I, Emperor, 116. 

Oudinot, 269. 

Oxford, University of, 165, 179. 

Ozanam, 295. 

Pachomius, St., 96. 

Padua, University of, 165. 

Paganism, 1, 7, 69. 

Painting, 150, 175, 219. 

Palestrina, 215, 219. 

Papal States — See States of the 

Church. 
Papists, 206. 
Paris, University of, 165, 169, 

192. 
Parish, Establishment of, 49. 
Pascal, 234. 
Passionists, 247. 
Patmos, Island of, 19. 
Patriarchates, 289. 
Patriarchs, 83. 
Patrick, St., 77. 
Paul, St., Apostle, 18, 26. 33, 64. 
Paul, St, Epistles of, 29. 
Paul, St, of the Cross, 247. 
Paul III, 203, 210. 
Paul V, 187. 
Pelagianism, 99. 
Penance, Public, 88, 124. 
Penance, Sacrament of, 146. 
Penitential Works, 124. 
Pentecost, 13, 51. 
People's Union, 294. 
Pepin, 109. 
Perpetua, St, 37. 
Persecution, Jewish, 31. 
Persecution, Pagan, 32. 
Persia, 90, 100, 288. 



Perugmo, 219. 

Peter, St, Apostle, 11, 13, 14, 

15, 16, 17, 22, 29, 33. 
Peter, St, Church of, 66, 185, 

186, 193, 219. 
Peter of Castelnau, 159. 
Peter's Pence, 263. 
Pharisees, 7. 
Philip, Deacon, 15. 
Philip, Duke of Orleans, 238. 
Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 

196. 
Philip Neri, St, 188, 215. 
Philip II, of Spain, 160. 
Philosophers, 241. 
Philosophers, Pagan, 4. 
Philosophism, 237, 241, 243, 244, 

251, 252. 
Philosophy, 166. 
Phoenicia, 15. 
Photius, 132. 
Pilgrimages, 147, 264. 
Pisa, Council of, 169. 
Pius IV, 212. 
Pius V, St, 184. 
Pius VI, 233, 253. 
Pius, VII, 257, 258, 268. 
Pius VIII, 260. 
Pius IX, 262, 263, 264, 269, 274, 

278, 291. 
Pius X, 266, 268, 284, 291. 
Plato, 4. 
Pliny, 35. 
Poland, 279. 
Pole, Cardinal, 205. 
Polycarp, St, 28, 36, 57. 
Pombal, Marquis de, 243. 
Pontifical Power, 171. 
Pontifical States — See States of 

the Church. 
Port-Royal, 234. 
Portugal, 271, 284, 287. 
Pothinus, St, 36. 
Premonstratensians, 155. 
Presbyterians, 206, 209. 
Press, Catholic, 273. 
Primacy of the Pope, 46, 82. 
Processions, 89. 



250 



( Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Protestantism, 160, 163, 191, 

237, 281. 
Prussia, 275. 
Purists, 156. 
Puritans, 206, 209. 

Quakers, 209. 
Quebec, 282. 
Quirinal, 185, 263. 

Raphael. 183, 219. 

Rationalism, 200, 237. 

Ravenna, 72. 

Raymond of Penafort, St., 145. 

Real Presence, Dogma of, 192. 

Reason, Worship of, 255. 

Recared, 74. 

Redemptorists, 246. 

Reductions of Paruguav, 223. 

Reformation, 183, 213." 

Reichsrath, 276. 

Reign of Terror, 244, 255. 

Relics, 147. 

Remigius, St., 75. 

Republic, Roman. 233, 263. 269. 

Revolution, French, 218. 238. 

240, 251, 266, 292. 
Richard, the Lion-hearted. 138. 
Richard II, 179. 
Rite, Latin, 288. 
Rite, Oriental, 288. 
Rites, Congregation of, 249. 
Rites, Funeral, 89. 
Robespierre, 255. 
Rogations, 89. 
Romanesque Style. 150. 
Rome, Burning of. 33. 
Rome, University of, 165. 
Romulus, 72. 
Romulus Augustulus, 72. 
Rosary. 126, 147. 
Rosary, Feast of, 184. 
Rose of Lima, St., 230. 
Rousseau, 240. 
Rubens, 250. 
Russia, 279. > 



Sacraments, 51, 88, 125, 146. 
Sacred Heart, 264, 285, 291. 
Sacrifice, Human, 3. 
Sadducees, 7. 
Saint-Maur, Congregation of, 

215. 
Saint-Sulpice, 219. 
Saints, Veneration of, 53, 89. 
Saladin, 138. 

Salamanca, University of, 165. 
Samaria, 15. 
Samaritans, 7. 
Sanhedrin, 14, 22. 
Saracens, 112. 
SatolH, Cardinal, 265. 
Schiller, 242. 
Schism, Greek, 131. 
Schism, Origin of, 95. 
Schism, of the West, 166, 168. 

169, 170, 171, 177. 
Scholastica, St., 94. 
Schools, 164. 
Schools, Medical, 297. 
Science, Men of, 297. 
Scotland, Protestants in, 207. 
Scribes, 7. 

Scriptures, Sacred, 265, 266. 
Sculpture, 150, 175. 
Sebastian, St.. 41. 
Sees. Metropolitan, 49. 
Seminaries, 290. 
Seneca. 4. 

Septimius Severus, 37. 
Sepulchre, Holy, Church of, 

66. 
Serfs, 139. 
Servetus, 192. 
Servites, 155. 
Siberia, 279. 
Simeon, St., 35. 
Simon Magus, 29. 
Sin, Original, 211. 
Sistine Chapel, 219. 
Six Articles, Bill of, 203. 204. 
Sixtus III, St., Pope, 40. 
Sixtus IV, 160. 
Sixtus V, 166, 186, 249, 266. 
Slavery, 285. 



251 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Sobieski, 231. 
Social Contract, 240. 
Socialism, 240, 241, 265. 
Societies, Secret, 251, 259, 261, 

265. 
Society, Christian, 110. 
Society of Jesus, 236, 258, 268, 

275, 292. 
Sonderbund, 277. 
Sorbonne, 234. 
Sorcery, 176. 
South America, 285. 
South America, Missions in, 

223. 
Spain, 160, 162, 284, 285. 
States General, 252. 
States of the Church, 232, 257, 

258, 263, 265, 268. 269. 
Stations of the Cross, 248. 
St-Cyran, 234. 
Stensen, Bishop, 297. 
Stephen, St., Deacon, 15, 31. 
Stephen, St., Pope, 40. 
Stephen IV, 121. 
Stephen V, 115. 
Stock, Simon, St., 155. 
Storck, .200. 
Sulpicians, 215, 282. 
Supremacy of the Pope, 120. 
Switzerland, 277. 
Switzerland, Divisions of, 201. 
Switzerland, Reformation in, 

192. 
Sydney, 286. 
Syria, 16. 
Syrians, 288. 
Sylvester II, 116. 
Sylvester III, 116. 

Temporal Power, 109, 264. 
Teresa, St., 188. 
Tertullian, 44, 54, 59, 64, 76. 
Tetzel, 194. 
Teutons, 3. 
Theatines, 216. 
Theodora, 115. 
Theodoric, 84. 
Theodosius the Great, 69. 



Theodosius II, 100. 

Theology, 165, 166. 

Thomas Aquinas, St., 166, 297. 

Thorwaldsen, 258. 

Tiara, 141. 

Titian, 219. 

Tokio, 288. 

Toulouse, 156. 

Toulouse, Council of, 159. 

Toulouse, University of, 165. 

Tours, Battle of, 136. 

Tours, Council of, 156. 

Tradition, Sacred, 28, 57, 211. 

Trajan, 35. 

Transmigration of the Soul, 

156. 
Transubstantiation, 146. 
Trent, Council of, 210. 
Trent, Decrees of Council of, 

211. 
Tribes, Germanic, 1, 182. 
Tribes, Slavic, 182. 
Trinitarians, 155. 
Trinity, Blessed, Feast of, 173. 
Truce of God, 133. 
Turks, 184, 230, 231. 

United States, 281. 

United, States, Bishoprics in, 
264. 

Universities, 165, 182. 

University, Catholic, of Amer- 
ica, 265, 290. 

Urban II, 137, 138. 

Urban, VI, 168, 169. 

Urban, VIII, 189, 220. 

Ursulines, 217. 

Utrecht, University of, 274. 

Valentine, Basil, 297. 
Valentinian III, 71. 
Valerian, 40, 258. 
Vandals, 102. ■ 
Van Nispen, 274. 
Vanutelli, Cardinal, 278. 
Vatican, 263, 264, 269. 
Vatican, Archives, 265. 



252 



(Numbers refer to paragraphs) 



Vatican, Library, 186, 189, 229, 

232, 258. 
Vaughan, Cardinal, 278. 
Venice, Republic of, 187. 
Venice, University of, 165. 
Vestments of Clergy, 53. 
Victor Emmanuel, 263, 269. 
Vienna, 276. 
Vienna, Congress of, 258, 272, 

275, 277. 
Vigils. 248. 

Vincent de Paul. St.. 218. 
Vincent de Paul, Society of, 

216, 288, 295. 
Vincent Ferrer, St., 172, 181. 
Visigoths, 71, 74, 75. 
Visitation, Feast of, 173. 
Visitation, Order of, 217. 
Voltaire. 239, 240, 241. 
Vows, 90. 
Vulgate, 186, 211. 



Waldenses, 144, 157. 163. 
Waldes, 157. 

Water, Holy, Use of. 53. 
Westminster, 278. 
Westphalia, Peace of, 190. 
William I. of Netherlands, 272. 
William of Orange, 208. 
Windthorst, 275. 295. 
Wiseman. Cardinal, 278. 
Witchcraft, 176. 
Wittenberg, University of, 192. 
Wolsey. Cardinal, 203. 
Women, Religious, 94. 
Worms, Concordat of, 135. 
Worms, Diet of, 195. 
Worship of Ancestors, 288. 
Worship. Places of, 89. 
Wyclif, 172, 179. 

Zwingli, 192, 199, 201. 



